BIBLIOGRAPHY DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL...
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013. Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against
External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Benguet State
University, La Trinidad, Benguet.
Adviser: Myrna B. Walsiyen, MS
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to determine the degree of effectiveness of tobacco leaves and its
extract in controlling external parasites of laying hens and the external parasites of laying
hens that can be controlled.
A total of 12 native laying hens were used in the study. Following the completely
randomized design (CRD), these were divided into four treatments. Each treatment had
three replications with one hen per replication, the different treatments were as follows: No
tobacco leaves (T0 or control), Dried tobacco leaves (T1) Green tobacco leaves (T2), and
Green tobacco leaves decoction (T3).
Results of the study revealed highly significant differences among treatment means
in the number of ectoparasites particularly mites and lice. Practically, mites observed from
the treated hens were very much lower in number compared to the control hens or those
that were not subjected to tobacco leaves. Mites observed from the control hens had a mean
of 145. On the other hand, a mean of 42 was observed from the hens sprayed with green
tobacco leaves decoction, 19.67 from the hens treated with green tobacco leaves and zero
from the hens treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
INTRODUCTION
The domestic native chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is a mixture of different
breeds. They are small active, sensitive and capable of great flight when frightened. The
hens are excellent sitters and mothers. Under normal backyard production, the native hen
produces 30-60 eggs per year (Walsiyen, 2000).
While native hens are laying smaller number of eggs compared to the commercial
strains, still they are maintained most especially by the backyard raisers as their source of
meat and eggs. This is because native chickens are easier and cheaper to maintain than the
commercial strains. Besides, many of the consumers still claim that the meat and eggs of
the farmer of native chickens have better taste than those of the commercial strains.
One of the problems of the backyard native chicken growers, however, is
ectoparasitism, affecting not only the birds but even the growers themselves. It is because
of the above that the researcher would like to study on the efficacy of tobacco leaves or its
extract to remedy the above problem.
Tobacco leaves is a conveniently prepared control agents. The green color of which
is fresh and brownish if dried. It has disagreeable-smelling leaves but despite of this, it is
believed to be effective against chicken lice and mites or soft bodied insects. Moreover,
the tobacco leaves has a control agent over ectoparasites most especially in native hens at
laying period.
The study was conducted to establish a baseline data on the effect and uses of
tobacco leaves or its extract to control external parasites in native laying hens. The results,
if found feasible, will help the native chicken growers most especially the backyard
growers because they will be saved from buying commercially available insecticides to
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
control such parasites. Instead, they can make use of these tobacco leaves in which, to
some, is free and readily available.
This was conducted to determine the effect of tobacco leaves and its decoction in
controlling external parasites of native hens particularly during the laying period.
Specifically, the study aimed to determine the degree of effectiveness of the tobacco leaves
and its extract in controlling external parasites of laying hens and the external parasites of
laying hens that can killed.
The study was conducted at Balili, La Trinidad, Benguet from October 2012 to
January 2013.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Classification of External Parasites
Practically all external parasites of birds belong in invertebrate animal group
(Phylum Arthropoda). The arthropods are jointed limbed animal without a vertebral
column. Nearly all those parasites on birds and on other animals are further characterized
by having tracheal tubes for breathing (Benbrook, 1965).
Description of the Common External Parasites
Arends (1991) stated that lice are small and light in color. The smaller varieties
move very fast over the skin. Lice are divided into three groups there being several
varieties in each group. Each type of bird, such as chicken, turkey, pigeon, duck and goose
is infested but separate species of lice. There are more than 40 species of lice reported
from domesticated fowls. Fortunately as far as the veterinarian and poultry raisers are
concerned, the various species of bird lice at present are all controlled by the same methods.
In 1950, Hurd cited that from the eighteen or more different species of mites, the
common red mite is probably the most destructive to poultry. The adult is just visible,
normally looks like a gray speck, but when gorge with blood it is distinctly red in color,
hence its name. It may be called a voracious blood sucker unlike those of other species
such as the scaly leg mites, northern fowl mites, depluming mite, and air sac mites and
usually, they hide on the cracks feathers, mostly the nest.
Poultry, seriously infested with the usual external parasites, exhibit irritation and
react by scratching, preening, and rubbing. Incipient infestations may less obvious. An
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
unexplained production drop is a cause to look for external parasites. Lice and northern
fowl mites can be found by examining the skin after parting the feathers and also looking
along the feathers. The skin an feathers around the vent as well as o the legs, wings, head,
neck, breast, and back should be inspected (Matthysse, 1972). In laying hens, most
especially after hatching of eggs, the parasites could easily be identified when they transfer
to human causing itchiness and irritation as well.
Symptoms of External Parasite Infestation
In the Philippines, most of the encountered constraint was not yet reported
especially to smallholder backyard regarding the occurrence of infestations. As a result,
with no prevalence of the issues, it can be a problem all year round, particularly in extensive
management systems (Daghir, 2008). But mites that normally infest birds also bite people.
They can cause a mange-like conditioning pet in itching in people who handle infested
pets. They do not stay long on humans.
Most mites never come in contact with humans, but some that do can affect person’s
health. Yet, in many situations where mites or other “invisible” arthropod are believed to
be biting or ‘attacking people no causative organism is present. While as we would then
imagine mites rarely transmit disease to humans in the United States. They definitely
impair health in ways that the range from simply being nuisance when they enter homes in
large numbers, to inflicting severe slain irritation that can cause intense itching.
(http//www.idph.state.l.us./env-healyh/pcmites.html, 2010).
According to Boyt (1937), Arnold and Arnold (1943), Mandoul et al. (1945),
Berndt (1915), Brown (1953), and Judd (1956). Those mites that move rapidly over the
skin will irritate birds to a considerable degree. Other species burrow in the epithelium,
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
causing tissue proliferation and scab formation. Feather loss results from invasion of bases
being destroyed, or the birds may pull out the affected feathers. Although mites are
considered ordinarily to be external parasites, several species invade the subcutis or the
internal organs of the birds.
Actually, other mites that cause problems among poultry raisers are scaly leg mites,
the depluming mites, and the air sac mites. These poultry mites are parasites. Some spend
their entire life on the host. Some stay just to fed themselves (part-time parasites). In the
day time they hide in the dark and wall cracks, roost, nests and litter. Both the adult and
nymphal stage of red mite is blood suckers. The insect has been shown to be a transmitter
of fowl cholera, new castle disease and encephalitis. Feather mites and scaly mites produce
lesions on the unfeathered portions of the legs. They bore into the skin covering, causing
formation of scale and crusts. The shank of the affected bird becomes inflamed and
deformed (Dagoon and Diaz, 1990). Apart from this symptoms are showned by the infest
of mites that the birds become unthrifty, pale faced, has feathers ruffled, wings drooping,
and there is a lose egg production (Kaupp and Surface, 1938). Moreover, most mites of
birds quiet use blood or lymph for food, hence; anemia is more or less constant symptom.
It might be expected that blood-sucking mites could easily transmit bacterial and viral
infections. The common red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, has been reported by Hertel
(1904), Plasaj (1925) as a transmitter of fowl organisms; and of the fowl spirochaete,
Borrelia anserine by Hart (1938).
On the other hand, lice doesn’t severely affect human but specifically, they stay on
its pre-host. A head louse, Cuclotogaster heterographus and the body lice, Menacanthus
straminous, M. curnutus and M. pallidulus are the most common lice
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
encountered in poultry. Several species may infest the same bird but fortunately the control
is similar for all species. Lice spend their life cycle on the host (Card and Neishem, 1972).
Eggs are attached often in clusters, to feathers and require 4-7 days to hatch. The entire
life cycle takes about three weeks for completion. Stockdale and Raun (1965), working
with the chicken body louse, give the incubation period as 4-5 days and each of three
nymphal instars 3 days. One pair of lice may produce 120000 descendants within a period
of few months. Their normal life span is several months, but away from the birds they can
remain alive only 5 or 6 days.
Although bird lice ordinarily eat feather products, it has been showed by Wilson
(1993) that Menacanthus stramincus, the chicken body louse may puncture soft quills near
the bases and consumes the blood that oozes out. This was confirmed by Crutchfield and
Hixsons (1943). In addition, they stated that the body louse draws blood by gnawing
through the covering layers of the skin itself. Severe lousiness in poultry originally was
thought to follow malnutrition and lead to weight loss as well as to low production.
Kartman (1949) also noted that debeaking the bird increased the number of lice present.
Edgar and King (1950), studying the effect of moderate infestation by the chicken body
louse, concluded louse free-hens averaged about 115 greater egg production that did those
infested a difference in net income of 75-85% per bird. Differences body weight and in
mortality between the two groups were not significant. A study by Gless and Raun (1959)
revealed that an average of 23,000 chicken body louse per chicken reduced egg production
by in bred hens and average of 15% to a maximum of 84% during a 14 week period the
number of bid used was very small. Stockdale and Raun (1960) could demonstrate an
effect of chicken body lice on egg production by
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
hybrid hens. Further research is needed to quantify economic effect according to the louse
species involved. Also, breeding lines of chickens vary in louse susceptibility (Quigley,
1965).
The Effects Parasites Have on their Hosts
In their frequently-cited study, published in Science magazine back in 1970, Moss
and Camin measured the effect that the martin bird-nest mite, Dermanyssus prognephilus,
has on martin nesting success. They established two colonies side by side. One was kept
as a control, the other was kept mite-free using a miticidal dust. The experiment was
repeated for several years, although each year they alternated which house was the control
and which was the test house.
Their results showed that although an equivalent number of martin eggs was laid in
the nests of each colony, the average number of young fledged by the mite-free birds was
4.2 per nest compared to 3.6 per nest by mite-parasitized birds. During one particularly
warm, wet nesting season during this long-term study, the mite population became so
severe in the untreated control house that nearly all of the nests were abandoned, while
there was no nest abandonment in the treated house 30 feet away. Compare these results
with the 4-year test run by the PMCA, reported on pages 28-29, where we eliminated all
parasites, not just mites.
Obviously, parasites do lower the reproductive success of their hosts, and during
periods of heavy infestation, may actually weaken and kill them. During fair weather,
parent birds usually can gather enough food to offset most of the parasite-induced energy
drain on their nestlings. But, during poor weather, when the parents can't deliver enough
food to the nest, their young weaken, allowing parasites to multiply. It is during these
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
heavy infestations that parasites cause extreme irritation to their hosts, may lower their
resistance to disease, and may actually kill them.
Many disease-producing microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and protozoans) are
dependent on ectoparasites for their transmission. As a result of the blood-feeding habits
of ticks, bird-nest mites, lice, fleas, hippoboscid flies, blackflies, mosquitoes, and blowfly
larvae, many hosts suffer from anemia. And the skin lacerations left by these bloodsucking
parasites can act as portals of entry for bacteria. With all of this in mind, it seems desirable
for martin landlords to take proper steps toward controlling the parasites at their colony
sites (http://purplemartin.org/update/Parasites.html,1994).
Economic Importance
The climatic conditions in tropical countries such as the Philippines are very
favorable for the rapid growth and multiplication of parasites an disease producing
microorganisms. These, however, should not be considered as deterrrants to the raising of
chickens as they can largely control. To take t noticed “prevention rather than cure” that
in generally speaking, drugs are of value in poultry raising as disinfectants only. A medical
agents they have very limited application. The poultry raiser should take excellent care of
his flock in order to prevent disease getting into the premises. It is more important to
safeguard a flock against disease infection than to cure, for the cost of medication is
proportionally greater than the value of fowl treated. Furthermore, a bird recovering from
some infectious disease may be a menace to the flock. Chickens are gregarious animals
and are apparently cured fowl may still be a disease carrier and easily infect the entire flock
(Fronda, 1972).
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
On the other hand, external parasites that are causing disease do not severely a killing
disease. But this precisely nuisance and impairs feeding growth, conversion efficiency and
production losses. It is due also to its resemblance to human situations regarding chicken
external parasites such as lice and mites. Occasionally, these chicken external parasites
may affect human and foremost to the skin itchiness.
Insecticide of Plant Origins and Control Significance
According to the literature, the tobacco plant is native to central and South America,
with over fifty varieties, tobacco belongs to Nightshade Family which includes
Belladona (deadly Nightshade), peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, and okra (also
called lay fingers).
Two varieties of tobacco interest us here. One is Nicotiana rustica, or “true
tobacco”, which was used by native peoples in the Americas long before the arrival of the
Europeans. Tobacco was originally used by Shamans for religious purposes and by
medicine men I the Americans. Early explores believed it ad medicinal properties and
carried it back to Europe. Moreover, Nicotiana tabacum was once used to make
insecticides widely in chicken houses to control mites and lice and in green houses to
control sucking insects. Although, it is still used in some countries for this purpose, it is
no longer used in the United States (http//www.ho.com/dfacts6730005 nicotiana tabacum
html, 2012).
Nicotiana spp. Tobacco and its chief alkaloid, nicotine, have been used since 1690
as insecticides. Nicotine forms salts with acids most of nicotine use for insecticidal
purposes in the United States is in the form of sulphate. More than 29 species of nicotiana
have been analyzed for their alkaloid content. During 18th century tobacco in crude form,
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
as an aqueous extract or dust was employed as an insecticide in the vegetable garden of
Europe. Commercial preparation of nicotine sulphate was put into market by 1910 and has
been popular insecticide ever since, by its triple action insecticidal property acting as
stomach contact and fumigant poison. Frear (1955) has reported that as freebase it is more
toxic to insects than as sulphate or hydrochloride. The efficiency of nicotine sulphate in
spray or dust increases with the increase of alkalinity. The range of insect’s subjects to
control by nicotine is very wide, although the alkaloid has been reported to be effective
against whiteflies, red spider mites, leaf rollers, moths, fruit-free borers, termites, cabbage
butterfly larvae and sun lice. Basic nicotine has also aided in the fight against house flies,
rats and the lice that infest cattle and horses (Horowit, 1942). Moreover, nicotine is
recommended against only those insects that have soft bodied insects and those that are
minute in size, such as spider mites aphids, and some external parasites on animals
(http:science-n-farming.library for farming.org/insects_2/Insecticides-from-plants-
2.html, 2010).
The insecticides of plant which of nicotine was formerly used also in spray dust
against lice and as a “fumigant” against poultry lice by painting on the perches,
e.g.Blackleaf 40 and actually works fairly well (Hungerford, 1967). In fact cannot be
avoided that they still exist on adaptable climate wherein breeding are rapidly fast. Beside
this, high ambient temperatures usually increase the population of insects responsible for
the transmission of disease. Houseflies (Musca domestica) and related species are very
active in hot climates and are involved in the transmission of several poultry diseases
(Shane, 1988a). Droppings under cages should allowed to cone dry out or be cleaned up
completely or interval of less than 7 days.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Materials
The materials and equipment that were used in the study were 12 native hens, green
tobacco (1 kg) and dried tobacco leaves (1/4 kg), spray bottle, strainer, white cloth, beaker,
graduated cylinder, microscope, gas burner, weighing scale, knife, cartons, nesting boxes
with rice hulls (Figure 1) , record book, ballpen, prints and camera.
Methodology
Preparation of nests. Twelve (12) woven nests made of bamboo strips that were
more or less of the same sizes were prepared. Each nest was enough to accommodate one
hen. A piece of carton was placed inside each of the nest afterwhich, rice hulls (Figure 1)
were placed on top of the cartons as nesting materials. To avoid interchanging of hens and
mixing of eggs, each nest was enclosed from each other (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Sample of the rice hulls used as nesting materials
and a woven nest made of bamboo.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 2. The experimental cages
Preparation of tobacco leaves. The dried leaves were bought from the market
particularly in Baguio City while the green tobacco leaves were collected from Tadian, Mt.
Province (Figure 3). Both the dried and green tobacco leaves were chopped into smaller
pieces first before these were placed inside the nests.
However for the tobacco decoction, the following procedure was followed. A total
of 280 grams of green tobacco leaves was chopped into smaller pieces. The chopped
tobacco leaves were placed inside a beaker afterwhich 500 ml. of water was poured into it.
The beaker was heated using a gas burner and the mixture was strained to separate the
decoction. The decoction was placed in a bottle, covered and allowed to cool off. This
was set aside ready for application.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Experimental hens and treatments. The 12 hens used in the study were purchased
from Rosario, La Union (Figures 6). These hens were grouped into four to compose the
four treatments. Each treatment had three replications with one hen per replication.
The different treatments were:
T0 – No tobacco leaves
T1 – Dried tobacco leaves
T2 – Green tobacco leaves
T3 – Green tobacco leaves decoction
Figure 3. Dried tobacco leaves
Figure 4. Green tobacco leaves Figure 5. Green tobacco leaves decoction
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
A. B.
C. D.
E F.
G. H.
I.
J
K L
Figure 6. The hens used in the study: (a-c) T0; (d-f) T1; (g-i) T2 and (j-l) T3
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Management of hens. The hens in all the treatments were subjected to the same
management the only difference was in the tobacco leaves applied. In the control group
(T0), no tobacco leaves were used. In treatment 1, chopped dried tobacco leaves (3 medium
leaves or 40g/hen/application) were mixed into the rice hulls or nesting materials that were
placed inside the laying nests of the hens (Figure 16). In treatment 2, chopped green
tobacco leaves (7-8 medium leaves or 80g/hen/application) (Figure 8) were used and in
treatment 3, green tobacco leaves decoction was sprayed into the skin and feathers of the
hens (Figure 9).
Figure 7. Application of dried tobacco leaves
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 8. Application of green tobacco leaves
Figure 9. The researcher spraying tobacco decoction into the hen’s skin
including the feathers.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
The first application of tobacco leaves was done the moment the first egg has been
laid. The second application was done 7 days after.
All the hens were fed with rice left over or so called ‘kinnaban’, corn grits and
laying mash. Clean drinking water was always available and cleaning of the underneaths
of cages was done daily (Figure 10).
Detection of ectoparasites. Detection of ectoparasites was done seven days after
application and on the day often the eggs were hatched. The hen was lifted from the nest
and allowed to stand into a white cloth for about five minutes, afterwhich, counting of
ectoparasites followed (Figure 11).
Figure 10. The researcher cleaning the underneath of the cages.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 11. The researcher counting the number of ectoparasites that had dropped
onto the white cloth just after hatching of eggs.
Identification of ectoparasites. All the ectoparasites collected had been brought to
the laboratory of the College of Veterinary Medicine for identification under the help of
Dr. Criselda Battad.
Data Gathered
The data gathered were the following:
1. Number of ectoparasites after application of tobacco leaves. This was obtained
by lifting the hen on top of a white cloth for 5 minutes and the ectoparasites that fell on the
cloth were counted.
2. Type of external parasite. This was determined by the help of Dr. Criselda
Battad at the College of Veterinary Medicine.
3. Observations. This refer to any external change on the body of the hens.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of Mites
Table 1 presents the number of mites counted at 7 days after application of tobacco
leaves and on the day of hatching. Results reveal that higher number of mites was observed
from the control group with mean of 74.67 at 7days after application of tobacco leaves and
145.00 on the day of hatching of the eggs. In the treated group, no mites were collected in
all the treatments at 7days after application of tobacco leaves. It was on the day of hatching
of eggs when a mean of 42 mites was collected from those treated with green tobacco
leaves decoction and 19.67 from those treated with chopped green tobacco leaves. No
mites have been collected from those treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Table 1. Number of mites 7 days after tobacco leaves application and the day of
hatching
TREATMENT 7th DAYS AFTER DAY OF HATCHING
APPLICATION
T0 = No Tobacco leaves 74.67a 145.00a
T1 = Dried tobacco leaves 0.00b 0.00b
T2 = Green tobacco leaves 0.00b 19.67b
T3 = Green tobacco leaves decoction 0.00b
42.00b
*Means with common letters are high significantly different using DMRT at 5% level of significance.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Number of Lice
Table 2 shows the number of lice recorded in each treatment after hatching of eggs.
The statistical analysis shows that there exist highly significant differences among the
treatments (Appendix Table 3). Similar to the trend in the number of mites, the control,
recorded the highest with a mean of 4.00 followed by those treated with chopped green
tobacco leaves. No lice were observed from those treated with dried tobacco leaves and
those that were sprayed with green tobacco decoction.
The above results reveal that tobacco leaves can be used to minimize mites in
native hens most especially if dried tobacco leaves are used. It also agrees with the
practice of the native chicken raisers in Kalinga wherein they are putting dried tobacco
leaves inside the nests of their native hens as revealed by Ongyao (2007).
Table 2. Number of lice at the day of hatching
TREATMENT MEAN
T0 = No Tobacco leaves 4.00a
T1 = Dried tobacco leaves 0.00b
T2 = Green tobacco leaves 2.00ab
T3 = Green tobacco leaves decoction 0.00b
*Means with common letters are high significantly different using DMRT at 5% level of Significance.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Type of External Parasites
The ectoparasites from chickens that collected were subjected to a microscope for
identification. For the mites, the species only that had been identified was Orthonyssus
bursa (Figure 12). For lice, the species identified only was Lipeurus caponis (Figure 13).
The Orthonyssus bursa, is often called the tropical fowl mite. It will attack man,
causing pruritus but this is temporary, because this species cannot survive for longer than
ten days away from a bird host.
Life cycle. Baker et al (1956) stated that, in the laboratory, the eggs are usually laid
in the litter not on the host but in birds in the field, large numbers of eggs may be found in
the nests of the birds. The eggs hatch in about three days, liberating six-legged larvae,
which do not feed, but moult after about 17 hours, to become protonymphs, which feed on
the host blood and after one to two days, moult to become deutonymphs, which also feed
on the hosts blood and become the adults.
Sample pictures showing the location of mite infestations in the hens in the different
treatments are showed in Figures 14 – 22.
Lipeurus caponis, the ‘wing louse’, on the other hand, is slender elongate louse
which occurs on the under-side of the large wing feathers and moves about very little.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 12. Sample of a Lipeurus caponis focused on the microscope
Figure 13. Sample of the Orthonyssus bursa focused on the microscope
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 14. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T0R1
Figure 15. Mites infesting the head of hen causing skin lesion observed in T0R2
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 16. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T0R3
Figure 17. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T2R1
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 18. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T2R2
Figure 19. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T2R3
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 20. Mites impaired the skin on the head of a hen observed in T3R1
Figure 21. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T3R2
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 22. Mites infesting the head of a hen observed in T3R3
Other Observations
Results of the study showed that the number of 7 days from first day of laying to
hatching of eggs ranged from 29-42 days (Appendix Table 4). The number of eggs laid
ranged from 7-15 and the number of eggs unhatched ranged from 0-3 eggs.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The study was conducted to determine the effect of tobacco leaves and its decoction
in controlling external parasites of native hens particularly during the laying period.
A total of 12 experimental native laying hens were grouped into four to compose
the four treatments. Each treatment was replicated three times with one bird per replicate
using the Completely Randomized Design as an experimental Design.
Results of the study revealed highly significant differences among treatment means
in the number of ectoparasites particularly mites and lice. Practically, mites observed from
the treated hens were very much lower in number compared to the control hens or those
that were not subjected to tobacco leaves. Mites observed from the control hens had a mean
of 145. On the other hand, a mean of 42 was observed from the hens sprayed with green
tobacco leaves decoction, 19.67 from the hens treated with green tobacco leaves and zero
from the hens treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the study, it is therefore concluded that tobacco leaves can
be used to control ectoparasites of laying hens most especially mites. It is also concluded
that the most economical way to prevent ectoparasites in native chickens is to use dried
tobacco leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Recommendations
Based on the result, it is recommended that tobacco leaves can be used to control
ectoparasites of hens at laying period. However, to be more effective, dried tobacco leaves
should be used. It is also recommended that related studies should be conducted to include
the use of greater amounts when using green leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
LITERATURE CITED
ANONYMOUS 2010. Mites affecting humans. Retrieved 2012 from http//www.idph.
State.il,us/envhealyh/pdmites.html.
ANONYMOUS 2010. Insecticides. Library 4 sciences.com. LLC. Retrieve June 2010
from
http://sciences-in-farming.
Library
for
farming.org/insects_/Insecticides/Insecticides –from-plants-2.html.
ARENDS, J. J, 1991. External parasites and poultry pests. Diseases of poultry. 9th ed.
Iowa State University, Press., U.S.A. Pp 705-708
ARNOLD, H. L. Jr. and ARNOLD, H.L. Sr. 1943. The diagnosis and management of
bird mite bites (in man). Proc. Staff. Meet. Clinic, Honolulu. 9:41.
BAKER, E. W. (1956) Manual of the Mites of Medical or Economic Importance. New
York: Nat’l Pest Control Association
BENBROOK, E.A. 1965. External parasites of poultry. Diseases of poultry. 5th ed. The
Iowa State University, Press., U.S.A. P. 926
BERNDT, W. L. 1952. The chicken mite attacking children. Jour. Econ. Entom.
45:1098.
BOYT, R. H. 1937. Dermanyssus and liponyssus avium. Et gallinae attacking man. Brit
Jour. Dermatol. 49:66.
BROWN, J. H. 1953. A chicken mit infestation in a hospital. Jour. Econ. Entom.
46:900.
CARD, L. E. and NESHEIM, M. C. 1972. Diseases and parasites. Poultry production.
11th ed. Lea and Febiger Philadelphia. Pp. 265-269
CAROLL. J. 2012. What is nicotiana tabacum? Demand media Inc. Retrieved 2012
from http//www.ehow.com/facts_6730005_nicotiana tabacum_html.
CRUTCHFIELD, C. M. and HIXSON, H. 1943. Food habits of several species of
poultry lice, with special reference to blood consumption. Florida Entomologist.
26:63-66
DAGHIR, N. J. 2008. Replacement pullet and layer feeding and management in hot
climates. Poultry production in hot climates. 2nd ed. Cromwell Press, Trowbridge.
P. 284
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gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
DAGOON, J. D. and DIAZ, E. 1990. Study of diseases, infestation, and control. Animal
Husbandry. Rex Printing Company, Inc., Quezon City
EDGAR, J. A. and KING, D. F. 1950. Effect of the body louse Eomenacanthus
stramineus, on mature chickens. Poultry Sci. 29:214-19.
FREAR, D. E. H. 1955. Insecticides derivd from plants, in chemistry of pesticides. D.
Vand nostrand co. Inc., New York. 141-14.
FRONDA, F. M. 1972. Poultry science and production. 3rd ed. G.M.S. Publishing Corp.
Pp. 269-270
GLESS, E. E. and RAUN, E. S. 1959. Effects of chicken body louse infestation on egg
production. J. Econ. Entomol. 52:358-59.
HART, L. 1938. A short note on the transmission of the fowl spirochaete (Treponema
anserinum) by red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae). Vet. Res. Rep., Dept. Agr., N.S.
Wales, No. 7:74.
HILL J. R. III 1994. An Introduction to the Ectoparasite of Purple Martin. Retrieved
March 1994 from http://purple martin.org/update/Parasites.html
HERTEL, M. 1904. Uber Geeflugelcholera undHuhnerpost. Arb. A.d. Kaiserl.
Gesundheitysmt. 20:453.
HOROWITZ, B. 1942. Australian J. of Sci., 4,179.
HUNGERFORD, T. G. 1967. Disease of livestock. 6th ed. The Macmillan Com.,
NewYork. Pp. 284
JUDD, W. W. 1956. Dermatitis of humans caused by the fowl mite, Dermanyssus
gallinae (deg.) at London, Ontario Canad. Entom. 88:109.
KAUPP, B. F. and SURFACE, R. C. 1938. External parasitic disease. Poultry sanitation
and disease control. 5650 Pershing Avenue, St. Louis Mo. Pp. 165
KARTMAN, L. 1949. Preliminary observations on the relation of nutrition to pediculous
of rats and chickens. J. Parasitol. 35:367-74
MANDOUL, R. 1945. L’ acariase dermanissique humaine. Soc. Hist. Nat. Bul.
(toulouse0 80:199.
MATTHYSSE, J. G. 1972. External parasites. Diseases of poultry. 6th ed. The Iowa
State University Press., ames, Iowa 50010. Pp. 794.
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gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
PLASAJ, S. 1925. Sur la transmission du cholera aviaire par ls Dermanyssus. Jugoslav.
Vet. Glasnik., Livr. 1-6. Rev. in Rev. Gen. de Med. Vet. 34-654.
ONGYAO L. G. 2007. Status of Livestock and Poultry Raisers in Selected Barangay of
Tabuk, Kalinga. Benguet State University, LaTrinidad, Benguet. P. 29.
QUIGLEY, G. C. 1965. Family differences in attractiveness of poultry to the chicken
body louse, Menacanthus styramineus (Mallophaga). J. Econ. Entomol. 58:8-10.
SOULSBY E. J. L. 1982. Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of domesticated animals.
7th ed. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia
STOCKDALE, H. J. and RAUN, E. S. 1965. Biology of the chicken body louse,
Menacanthus stramineus. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 58:802-5.
STOCKDALE, H. J. and RAUN, E. S. 1960. Economic importance of the chicken body
louse. J: Econ. Entomol. 53:421-23.
WALSIYEN, M. 2000. Lecture Notes on Poultry Production. BSU, La Trinidad,
Benguet.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013. Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against
External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Benguet State
University, La Trinidad, Benguet.
Adviser: Myrna B. Walsiyen, MS
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to determine the degree of effectiveness of tobacco leaves and its
extract in controlling external parasites of laying hens and the external parasites of laying
hens that can be controlled.
A total of 12 native laying hens were used in the study. Following the completely
randomized design (CRD), these were divided into four treatments. Each treatment had
three replications with one hen per replication, the different treatments were as follows: No
tobacco leaves (T0 or control), Dried tobacco leaves (T1) Green tobacco leaves (T2), and
Green tobacco leaves decoction (T3).
Results of the study revealed highly significant differences among treatment means
in the number of ectoparasites particularly mites and lice. Practically, mites observed from
the treated hens were very much lower in number compared to the control hens or those
that were not subjected to tobacco leaves. Mites observed from the control hens had a mean
of 145. On the other hand, a mean of 42 was observed from the hens sprayed with green
tobacco leaves decoction, 19.67 from the hens treated with green tobacco leaves and zero
from the hens treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
INTRODUCTION
The domestic native chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is a mixture of different
breeds. They are small active, sensitive and capable of great flight when frightened. The
hens are excellent sitters and mothers. Under normal backyard production, the native hen
produces 30-60 eggs per year (Walsiyen, 2000).
While native hens are laying smaller number of eggs compared to the commercial
strains, still they are maintained most especially by the backyard raisers as their source of
meat and eggs. This is because native chickens are easier and cheaper to maintain than the
commercial strains. Besides, many of the consumers still claim that the meat and eggs of
the farmer of native chickens have better taste than those of the commercial strains.
One of the problems of the backyard native chicken growers, however, is
ectoparasitism, affecting not only the birds but even the growers themselves. It is because
of the above that the researcher would like to study on the efficacy of tobacco leaves or its
extract to remedy the above problem.
Tobacco leaves is a conveniently prepared control agents. The green color of which
is fresh and brownish if dried. It has disagreeable-smelling leaves but despite of this, it is
believed to be effective against chicken lice and mites or soft bodied insects. Moreover,
the tobacco leaves has a control agent over ectoparasites most especially in native hens at
laying period.
The study was conducted to establish a baseline data on the effect and uses of
tobacco leaves or its extract to control external parasites in native laying hens. The results,
if found feasible, will help the native chicken growers most especially the backyard
growers because they will be saved from buying commercially available insecticides to
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
control such parasites. Instead, they can make use of these tobacco leaves in which, to
some, is free and readily available.
This was conducted to determine the effect of tobacco leaves and its decoction in
controlling external parasites of native hens particularly during the laying period.
Specifically, the study aimed to determine the degree of effectiveness of the tobacco leaves
and its extract in controlling external parasites of laying hens and the external parasites of
laying hens that can killed.
The study was conducted at Balili, La Trinidad, Benguet from October 2012 to
January 2013.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Classification of External Parasites
Practically all external parasites of birds belong in invertebrate animal group
(Phylum Arthropoda). The arthropods are jointed limbed animal without a vertebral
column. Nearly all those parasites on birds and on other animals are further characterized
by having tracheal tubes for breathing (Benbrook, 1965).
Description of the Common External Parasites
Arends (1991) stated that lice are small and light in color. The smaller varieties
move very fast over the skin. Lice are divided into three groups there being several
varieties in each group. Each type of bird, such as chicken, turkey, pigeon, duck and goose
is infested but separate species of lice. There are more than 40 species of lice reported
from domesticated fowls. Fortunately as far as the veterinarian and poultry raisers are
concerned, the various species of bird lice at present are all controlled by the same methods.
In 1950, Hurd cited that from the eighteen or more different species of mites, the
common red mite is probably the most destructive to poultry. The adult is just visible,
normally looks like a gray speck, but when gorge with blood it is distinctly red in color,
hence its name. It may be called a voracious blood sucker unlike those of other species
such as the scaly leg mites, northern fowl mites, depluming mite, and air sac mites and
usually, they hide on the cracks feathers, mostly the nest.
Poultry, seriously infested with the usual external parasites, exhibit irritation and
react by scratching, preening, and rubbing. Incipient infestations may less obvious. An
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
unexplained production drop is a cause to look for external parasites. Lice and northern
fowl mites can be found by examining the skin after parting the feathers and also looking
along the feathers. The skin an feathers around the vent as well as o the legs, wings, head,
neck, breast, and back should be inspected (Matthysse, 1972). In laying hens, most
especially after hatching of eggs, the parasites could easily be identified when they transfer
to human causing itchiness and irritation as well.
Symptoms of External Parasite Infestation
In the Philippines, most of the encountered constraint was not yet reported
especially to smallholder backyard regarding the occurrence of infestations. As a result,
with no prevalence of the issues, it can be a problem all year round, particularly in extensive
management systems (Daghir, 2008). But mites that normally infest birds also bite people.
They can cause a mange-like conditioning pet in itching in people who handle infested
pets. They do not stay long on humans.
Most mites never come in contact with humans, but some that do can affect person’s
health. Yet, in many situations where mites or other “invisible” arthropod are believed to
be biting or ‘attacking people no causative organism is present. While as we would then
imagine mites rarely transmit disease to humans in the United States. They definitely
impair health in ways that the range from simply being nuisance when they enter homes in
large numbers, to inflicting severe slain irritation that can cause intense itching.
(http//www.idph.state.l.us./env-healyh/pcmites.html, 2010).
According to Boyt (1937), Arnold and Arnold (1943), Mandoul et al. (1945),
Berndt (1915), Brown (1953), and Judd (1956). Those mites that move rapidly over the
skin will irritate birds to a considerable degree. Other species burrow in the epithelium,
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
causing tissue proliferation and scab formation. Feather loss results from invasion of bases
being destroyed, or the birds may pull out the affected feathers. Although mites are
considered ordinarily to be external parasites, several species invade the subcutis or the
internal organs of the birds.
Actually, other mites that cause problems among poultry raisers are scaly leg mites,
the depluming mites, and the air sac mites. These poultry mites are parasites. Some spend
their entire life on the host. Some stay just to fed themselves (part-time parasites). In the
day time they hide in the dark and wall cracks, roost, nests and litter. Both the adult and
nymphal stage of red mite is blood suckers. The insect has been shown to be a transmitter
of fowl cholera, new castle disease and encephalitis. Feather mites and scaly mites produce
lesions on the unfeathered portions of the legs. They bore into the skin covering, causing
formation of scale and crusts. The shank of the affected bird becomes inflamed and
deformed (Dagoon and Diaz, 1990). Apart from this symptoms are showned by the infest
of mites that the birds become unthrifty, pale faced, has feathers ruffled, wings drooping,
and there is a lose egg production (Kaupp and Surface, 1938). Moreover, most mites of
birds quiet use blood or lymph for food, hence; anemia is more or less constant symptom.
It might be expected that blood-sucking mites could easily transmit bacterial and viral
infections. The common red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, has been reported by Hertel
(1904), Plasaj (1925) as a transmitter of fowl organisms; and of the fowl spirochaete,
Borrelia anserine by Hart (1938).
On the other hand, lice doesn’t severely affect human but specifically, they stay on
its pre-host. A head louse, Cuclotogaster heterographus and the body lice, Menacanthus
straminous, M. curnutus and M. pallidulus are the most common lice
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
encountered in poultry. Several species may infest the same bird but fortunately the control
is similar for all species. Lice spend their life cycle on the host (Card and Neishem, 1972).
Eggs are attached often in clusters, to feathers and require 4-7 days to hatch. The entire
life cycle takes about three weeks for completion. Stockdale and Raun (1965), working
with the chicken body louse, give the incubation period as 4-5 days and each of three
nymphal instars 3 days. One pair of lice may produce 120000 descendants within a period
of few months. Their normal life span is several months, but away from the birds they can
remain alive only 5 or 6 days.
Although bird lice ordinarily eat feather products, it has been showed by Wilson
(1993) that Menacanthus stramincus, the chicken body louse may puncture soft quills near
the bases and consumes the blood that oozes out. This was confirmed by Crutchfield and
Hixsons (1943). In addition, they stated that the body louse draws blood by gnawing
through the covering layers of the skin itself. Severe lousiness in poultry originally was
thought to follow malnutrition and lead to weight loss as well as to low production.
Kartman (1949) also noted that debeaking the bird increased the number of lice present.
Edgar and King (1950), studying the effect of moderate infestation by the chicken body
louse, concluded louse free-hens averaged about 115 greater egg production that did those
infested a difference in net income of 75-85% per bird. Differences body weight and in
mortality between the two groups were not significant. A study by Gless and Raun (1959)
revealed that an average of 23,000 chicken body louse per chicken reduced egg production
by in bred hens and average of 15% to a maximum of 84% during a 14 week period the
number of bid used was very small. Stockdale and Raun (1960) could demonstrate an
effect of chicken body lice on egg production by
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
hybrid hens. Further research is needed to quantify economic effect according to the louse
species involved. Also, breeding lines of chickens vary in louse susceptibility (Quigley,
1965).
The Effects Parasites Have on their Hosts
In their frequently-cited study, published in Science magazine back in 1970, Moss
and Camin measured the effect that the martin bird-nest mite, Dermanyssus prognephilus,
has on martin nesting success. They established two colonies side by side. One was kept
as a control, the other was kept mite-free using a miticidal dust. The experiment was
repeated for several years, although each year they alternated which house was the control
and which was the test house.
Their results showed that although an equivalent number of martin eggs was laid in
the nests of each colony, the average number of young fledged by the mite-free birds was
4.2 per nest compared to 3.6 per nest by mite-parasitized birds. During one particularly
warm, wet nesting season during this long-term study, the mite population became so
severe in the untreated control house that nearly all of the nests were abandoned, while
there was no nest abandonment in the treated house 30 feet away. Compare these results
with the 4-year test run by the PMCA, reported on pages 28-29, where we eliminated all
parasites, not just mites.
Obviously, parasites do lower the reproductive success of their hosts, and during
periods of heavy infestation, may actually weaken and kill them. During fair weather,
parent birds usually can gather enough food to offset most of the parasite-induced energy
drain on their nestlings. But, during poor weather, when the parents can't deliver enough
food to the nest, their young weaken, allowing parasites to multiply. It is during these
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
heavy infestations that parasites cause extreme irritation to their hosts, may lower their
resistance to disease, and may actually kill them.
Many disease-producing microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and protozoans) are
dependent on ectoparasites for their transmission. As a result of the blood-feeding habits
of ticks, bird-nest mites, lice, fleas, hippoboscid flies, blackflies, mosquitoes, and blowfly
larvae, many hosts suffer from anemia. And the skin lacerations left by these bloodsucking
parasites can act as portals of entry for bacteria. With all of this in mind, it seems desirable
for martin landlords to take proper steps toward controlling the parasites at their colony
sites (http://purplemartin.org/update/Parasites.html,1994).
Economic Importance
The climatic conditions in tropical countries such as the Philippines are very
favorable for the rapid growth and multiplication of parasites an disease producing
microorganisms. These, however, should not be considered as deterrrants to the raising of
chickens as they can largely control. To take t noticed “prevention rather than cure” that
in generally speaking, drugs are of value in poultry raising as disinfectants only. A medical
agents they have very limited application. The poultry raiser should take excellent care of
his flock in order to prevent disease getting into the premises. It is more important to
safeguard a flock against disease infection than to cure, for the cost of medication is
proportionally greater than the value of fowl treated. Furthermore, a bird recovering from
some infectious disease may be a menace to the flock. Chickens are gregarious animals
and are apparently cured fowl may still be a disease carrier and easily infect the entire flock
(Fronda, 1972).
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
On the other hand, external parasites that are causing disease do not severely a killing
disease. But this precisely nuisance and impairs feeding growth, conversion efficiency and
production losses. It is due also to its resemblance to human situations regarding chicken
external parasites such as lice and mites. Occasionally, these chicken external parasites
may affect human and foremost to the skin itchiness.
Insecticide of Plant Origins and Control Significance
According to the literature, the tobacco plant is native to central and South America,
with over fifty varieties, tobacco belongs to Nightshade Family which includes
Belladona (deadly Nightshade), peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, and okra (also
called lay fingers).
Two varieties of tobacco interest us here. One is Nicotiana rustica, or “true
tobacco”, which was used by native peoples in the Americas long before the arrival of the
Europeans. Tobacco was originally used by Shamans for religious purposes and by
medicine men I the Americans. Early explores believed it ad medicinal properties and
carried it back to Europe. Moreover, Nicotiana tabacum was once used to make
insecticides widely in chicken houses to control mites and lice and in green houses to
control sucking insects. Although, it is still used in some countries for this purpose, it is
no longer used in the United States (http//www.ho.com/dfacts6730005 nicotiana tabacum
html, 2012).
Nicotiana spp. Tobacco and its chief alkaloid, nicotine, have been used since 1690
as insecticides. Nicotine forms salts with acids most of nicotine use for insecticidal
purposes in the United States is in the form of sulphate. More than 29 species of nicotiana
have been analyzed for their alkaloid content. During 18th century tobacco in crude form,
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
as an aqueous extract or dust was employed as an insecticide in the vegetable garden of
Europe. Commercial preparation of nicotine sulphate was put into market by 1910 and has
been popular insecticide ever since, by its triple action insecticidal property acting as
stomach contact and fumigant poison. Frear (1955) has reported that as freebase it is more
toxic to insects than as sulphate or hydrochloride. The efficiency of nicotine sulphate in
spray or dust increases with the increase of alkalinity. The range of insect’s subjects to
control by nicotine is very wide, although the alkaloid has been reported to be effective
against whiteflies, red spider mites, leaf rollers, moths, fruit-free borers, termites, cabbage
butterfly larvae and sun lice. Basic nicotine has also aided in the fight against house flies,
rats and the lice that infest cattle and horses (Horowit, 1942). Moreover, nicotine is
recommended against only those insects that have soft bodied insects and those that are
minute in size, such as spider mites aphids, and some external parasites on animals
(http:science-n-farming.library for farming.org/insects_2/Insecticides-from-plants-
2.html, 2010).
The insecticides of plant which of nicotine was formerly used also in spray dust
against lice and as a “fumigant” against poultry lice by painting on the perches,
e.g.Blackleaf 40 and actually works fairly well (Hungerford, 1967). In fact cannot be
avoided that they still exist on adaptable climate wherein breeding are rapidly fast. Beside
this, high ambient temperatures usually increase the population of insects responsible for
the transmission of disease. Houseflies (Musca domestica) and related species are very
active in hot climates and are involved in the transmission of several poultry diseases
(Shane, 1988a). Droppings under cages should allowed to cone dry out or be cleaned up
completely or interval of less than 7 days.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Materials
The materials and equipment that were used in the study were 12 native hens, green
tobacco (1 kg) and dried tobacco leaves (1/4 kg), spray bottle, strainer, white cloth, beaker,
graduated cylinder, microscope, gas burner, weighing scale, knife, cartons, nesting boxes
with rice hulls (Figure 1) , record book, ballpen, prints and camera.
Methodology
Preparation of nests. Twelve (12) woven nests made of bamboo strips that were
more or less of the same sizes were prepared. Each nest was enough to accommodate one
hen. A piece of carton was placed inside each of the nest afterwhich, rice hulls (Figure 1)
were placed on top of the cartons as nesting materials. To avoid interchanging of hens and
mixing of eggs, each nest was enclosed from each other (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Sample of the rice hulls used as nesting materials
and a woven nest made of bamboo.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 2. The experimental cages
Preparation of tobacco leaves. The dried leaves were bought from the market
particularly in Baguio City while the green tobacco leaves were collected from Tadian, Mt.
Province (Figure 3). Both the dried and green tobacco leaves were chopped into smaller
pieces first before these were placed inside the nests.
However for the tobacco decoction, the following procedure was followed. A total
of 280 grams of green tobacco leaves was chopped into smaller pieces. The chopped
tobacco leaves were placed inside a beaker afterwhich 500 ml. of water was poured into it.
The beaker was heated using a gas burner and the mixture was strained to separate the
decoction. The decoction was placed in a bottle, covered and allowed to cool off. This
was set aside ready for application.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Experimental hens and treatments. The 12 hens used in the study were purchased
from Rosario, La Union (Figures 6). These hens were grouped into four to compose the
four treatments. Each treatment had three replications with one hen per replication.
The different treatments were:
T0 – No tobacco leaves
T1 – Dried tobacco leaves
T2 – Green tobacco leaves
T3 – Green tobacco leaves decoction
Figure 3. Dried tobacco leaves
Figure 4. Green tobacco leaves Figure 5. Green tobacco leaves decoction
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
A. B.
C. D.
E F.
G. H.
I.
J
K L
Figure 6. The hens used in the study: (a-c) T0; (d-f) T1; (g-i) T2 and (j-l) T3
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Management of hens. The hens in all the treatments were subjected to the same
management the only difference was in the tobacco leaves applied. In the control group
(T0), no tobacco leaves were used. In treatment 1, chopped dried tobacco leaves (3 medium
leaves or 40g/hen/application) were mixed into the rice hulls or nesting materials that were
placed inside the laying nests of the hens (Figure 16). In treatment 2, chopped green
tobacco leaves (7-8 medium leaves or 80g/hen/application) (Figure 8) were used and in
treatment 3, green tobacco leaves decoction was sprayed into the skin and feathers of the
hens (Figure 9).
Figure 7. Application of dried tobacco leaves
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 8. Application of green tobacco leaves
Figure 9. The researcher spraying tobacco decoction into the hen’s skin
including the feathers.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
The first application of tobacco leaves was done the moment the first egg has been
laid. The second application was done 7 days after.
All the hens were fed with rice left over or so called ‘kinnaban’, corn grits and
laying mash. Clean drinking water was always available and cleaning of the underneaths
of cages was done daily (Figure 10).
Detection of ectoparasites. Detection of ectoparasites was done seven days after
application and on the day often the eggs were hatched. The hen was lifted from the nest
and allowed to stand into a white cloth for about five minutes, afterwhich, counting of
ectoparasites followed (Figure 11).
Figure 10. The researcher cleaning the underneath of the cages.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 11. The researcher counting the number of ectoparasites that had dropped
onto the white cloth just after hatching of eggs.
Identification of ectoparasites. All the ectoparasites collected had been brought to
the laboratory of the College of Veterinary Medicine for identification under the help of
Dr. Criselda Battad.
Data Gathered
The data gathered were the following:
1. Number of ectoparasites after application of tobacco leaves. This was obtained
by lifting the hen on top of a white cloth for 5 minutes and the ectoparasites that fell on the
cloth were counted.
2. Type of external parasite. This was determined by the help of Dr. Criselda
Battad at the College of Veterinary Medicine.
3. Observations. This refer to any external change on the body of the hens.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of Mites
Table 1 presents the number of mites counted at 7 days after application of tobacco
leaves and on the day of hatching. Results reveal that higher number of mites was observed
from the control group with mean of 74.67 at 7days after application of tobacco leaves and
145.00 on the day of hatching of the eggs. In the treated group, no mites were collected in
all the treatments at 7days after application of tobacco leaves. It was on the day of hatching
of eggs when a mean of 42 mites was collected from those treated with green tobacco
leaves decoction and 19.67 from those treated with chopped green tobacco leaves. No
mites have been collected from those treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Table 1. Number of mites 7 days after tobacco leaves application and the day of
hatching
TREATMENT 7th DAYS AFTER DAY OF HATCHING
APPLICATION
T0 = No Tobacco leaves 74.67a 145.00a
T1 = Dried tobacco leaves 0.00b 0.00b
T2 = Green tobacco leaves 0.00b 19.67b
T3 = Green tobacco leaves decoction 0.00b
42.00b
*Means with common letters are high significantly different using DMRT at 5% level of significance.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Number of Lice
Table 2 shows the number of lice recorded in each treatment after hatching of eggs.
The statistical analysis shows that there exist highly significant differences among the
treatments (Appendix Table 3). Similar to the trend in the number of mites, the control,
recorded the highest with a mean of 4.00 followed by those treated with chopped green
tobacco leaves. No lice were observed from those treated with dried tobacco leaves and
those that were sprayed with green tobacco decoction.
The above results reveal that tobacco leaves can be used to minimize mites in
native hens most especially if dried tobacco leaves are used. It also agrees with the
practice of the native chicken raisers in Kalinga wherein they are putting dried tobacco
leaves inside the nests of their native hens as revealed by Ongyao (2007).
Table 2. Number of lice at the day of hatching
TREATMENT MEAN
T0 = No Tobacco leaves 4.00a
T1 = Dried tobacco leaves 0.00b
T2 = Green tobacco leaves 2.00ab
T3 = Green tobacco leaves decoction 0.00b
*Means with common letters are high significantly different using DMRT at 5% level of Significance.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Type of External Parasites
The ectoparasites from chickens that collected were subjected to a microscope for
identification. For the mites, the species only that had been identified was Orthonyssus
bursa (Figure 12). For lice, the species identified only was Lipeurus caponis (Figure 13).
The Orthonyssus bursa, is often called the tropical fowl mite. It will attack man,
causing pruritus but this is temporary, because this species cannot survive for longer than
ten days away from a bird host.
Life cycle. Baker et al (1956) stated that, in the laboratory, the eggs are usually laid
in the litter not on the host but in birds in the field, large numbers of eggs may be found in
the nests of the birds. The eggs hatch in about three days, liberating six-legged larvae,
which do not feed, but moult after about 17 hours, to become protonymphs, which feed on
the host blood and after one to two days, moult to become deutonymphs, which also feed
on the hosts blood and become the adults.
Sample pictures showing the location of mite infestations in the hens in the different
treatments are showed in Figures 14 – 22.
Lipeurus caponis, the ‘wing louse’, on the other hand, is slender elongate louse
which occurs on the under-side of the large wing feathers and moves about very little.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 12. Sample of a Lipeurus caponis focused on the microscope
Figure 13. Sample of the Orthonyssus bursa focused on the microscope
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 14. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T0R1
Figure 15. Mites infesting the head of hen causing skin lesion observed in T0R2
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 16. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T0R3
Figure 17. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T2R1
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 18. Mites on the feather tail of a hen observed in T2R2
Figure 19. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T2R3
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 20. Mites impaired the skin on the head of a hen observed in T3R1
Figure 21. Mites on the midribs of feather tail of a hen observed in T3R2
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Figure 22. Mites infesting the head of a hen observed in T3R3
Other Observations
Results of the study showed that the number of 7 days from first day of laying to
hatching of eggs ranged from 29-42 days (Appendix Table 4). The number of eggs laid
ranged from 7-15 and the number of eggs unhatched ranged from 0-3 eggs.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The study was conducted to determine the effect of tobacco leaves and its decoction
in controlling external parasites of native hens particularly during the laying period.
A total of 12 experimental native laying hens were grouped into four to compose
the four treatments. Each treatment was replicated three times with one bird per replicate
using the Completely Randomized Design as an experimental Design.
Results of the study revealed highly significant differences among treatment means
in the number of ectoparasites particularly mites and lice. Practically, mites observed from
the treated hens were very much lower in number compared to the control hens or those
that were not subjected to tobacco leaves. Mites observed from the control hens had a mean
of 145. On the other hand, a mean of 42 was observed from the hens sprayed with green
tobacco leaves decoction, 19.67 from the hens treated with green tobacco leaves and zero
from the hens treated with dried tobacco leaves.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the study, it is therefore concluded that tobacco leaves can
be used to control ectoparasites of laying hens most especially mites. It is also concluded
that the most economical way to prevent ectoparasites in native chickens is to use dried
tobacco leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
Recommendations
Based on the result, it is recommended that tobacco leaves can be used to control
ectoparasites of hens at laying period. However, to be more effective, dried tobacco leaves
should be used. It is also recommended that related studies should be conducted to include
the use of greater amounts when using green leaves.
Effectivity of Tobacco Leaves against External Parasites in Native Laying Hens (Gallus
gallus domesticus) | DANNANG, DARYL W. APRIL 2013
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