Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao, Mountain Province
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BUAG-AY, FELIZA D. APRIL 2008. Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of
Rice Farming in Besao, Mountain Province. Benguet State University, La Trinidad
Benguet.
Adviser: Marie Klondy T. Dagupen, Ph D.
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to determine the gender roles and labor utilization of
rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province and identify the dominant rice farming
practices of the farmers.
The data was gathered with the use of interview schedules with 100 respondents
and analyzed using frequency count and percentage. The respondents were engaged in
rice farming as their major source of income and most of them planted rice once a year.
Family labor was generally employed in the study area. Land preparation,
transplanting, harvesting, threshing require more time and effort for the respondents.
There were three varieties of rice planted by the respondents, namely, Taiwan
(IR- 36), Intan and Los Baños (IR-62). Transplanting was the common method of
planting done by the respondents, wet method was practiced by the respondents in
growing seedlings. Basal application was done in application of fertilizer, flooding was
commonly done, manual weeding was practiced in cleaning their fields. To control pest
and diseases, the rice farmers sprayed chemical pesticides and use rat traps to kill these
pests. Respondents who plant on the month of December to February will harvest on the
month of June to August and those who plant on the month of June to August will
harvest on the month of December to February.
Rice farmers in Besao used improved rice varieties planted mostly in December
and harvested in June. Traditional rice farming method is used. Family labor is usually
employed in most farm activities except during weeding, fertilizer application,
transplanting, harvesting and drying. There is no clear cut distinction of gender roles in
rice farming in Besao. All activities are performed by both men and women. Participation
rate in social activities by both male and female is low. It is therefore recommended that
strategies to increase the participation rate of rice farmers in social activities like
attendance to meetings, seminars/workshop and other community activities should be
tried in order that farmers maybe able to take full advantage of learning from there
activities and farmers should participate on community activities for them to progress,
they should access to cooperatives/banks where they can get materials they need in their
farm.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Objective of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Scope and Delimitation of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Status and Characteristics of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Gender Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Gendered Division of Labor in Rice Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Gender Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Gender and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Labor Requirements and Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
METHODOLOGY
Locale and Time of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Respondents of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
iii
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic Profile of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Farming Profile of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Labor Utilization and Farm Activities of
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Gender Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .
27
iv
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In our society, there is existence of gender bias, both sexes work hand and hand
but in most cases, the contributions of women are not recognized. For instance the
function of women in the home are usually not included as production output for GNP
accounting. Men as dictated by culture are seen to be the superior ones. The Philippine
society is largely patriarchal. Men are tasked with the major responsibilities for the home
and community. They have to devote their responsibilities in their respective fields of
work where they can attain the highest position possible. On the other hand, women are
seen to be disadvantaged and disempowered. They have a wide range of responsibilities
because aside from their outside work they also do domestic chores, a situation which
make it a double burden for them (Marcelino, 1998).
The Philippine economy is largely dependent on agriculture especially rice
farming where men and women play a major role, actively participating in various forms
of activities.
As one crop contributing to food security, rice is the staple food of more than half
of the world’s population, most of whom live in less developed countries. In terms of
global security requirements, it has been argued that rice production must be increased by
70% to support the needs of the world’s population by 2025 (Riveros, 1999).
The differences in farm activities are dependent on the culture and tradition of
societies. Thus, this study will describe the gender roles in the different rice farming
activities in Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
2
Besao is one of the ten municipalities of Mountain Province. Rice is the
traditional dominant agricultural crop in the community. Besao is situated on the borders
of the adjacent provinces of Mountain Province, south by Tadian, on the east by Sagada,
on the west by Quirino, Ilocos Sur, and on the north by Tubo, Abra. Besao has a land
area of 17,361.50 hectares classified into forest lands, timberlakes, unclassified forest,
built-up areas and agricultural lands.
Statement of the Problem
The study aimed to answer the following questions.
1. What are the dominant rice farming practices in Besao, Mountain Province?
2. What is the labor utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province?
3. What are the gender roles in rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study was to determine the gender roles and labor
utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Specifically the study aimed to:
1. Describe the dominant rice farming practices in Besao, Mountain Province.
2. Determine the labor utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
3. Determine the gender roles in rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
3
Importance of the Study
The information from this study may be used for government and non-
government agencies in planning and implementing development programs in Besao. The
result will also provide information and useful guidelines to other researchers for more
comprehensive studies in the future.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The study focused on the gender roles and labor utilization of rice farming in
Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Status and Characteristics of Women
Ward (1988) as cited by Bannawe (2004) reported that female labor dominate
light industries such as garments, food processing, handicrafts and the assembly of
electronic components. The job women get in these industries, through income earning,
are analogous to the task they perform within the home sewing, making ornaments and
doing other fiddle things that need finger. In the profession, women are teachers and
nurses just as they are in the family.
In many societies, people believed women to be naturally more emotional and
less decisive than men. They have usually had fewer right and a lower social status than
men. The traditional role of a wife is centered around their households, being mother
dominated (World Book Encyclopedia, 1990).
Gender Roles
Women play an important role in shaping societal value and attitudes to
environment on the young. Their perspective is therefore crucial to effective environment
management programs that are held to improve the quality of life in the 21st century
dawn. Bannawe (2004) found out that in traditional farming, males prepare the land for
farming and females do the weeding and harvesting. She also found that males are more
overworked in terms of land preparation because they are stronger than the females.
Females perceived that they are overworked in terms of performing rice production
activities. There is also an inequality in terms of participation in rice production activities
and that female perceived they have more responsibility.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
5
Gender roles are also justified by gender stereo types about different personality
traits, skills and capabilities that men and women have as Dionisio, (1995) enumerated.
Men are said to be physically stronger than women, thus fit to take on work outside of the
home. Women on the other hand are perceived as fit only for household work that does
not require great physical exertion. Men are said to be brave, aggressive, independent and
good set of controlling their emotions. The center of their lives is their work, relationship
are secondary. Their decision are said to base on reasons, hence solid and unshakable.
All these makes them better equipped in the eyes of the society to head families business
enterprise, social and political organizations, communities and nations. Women on the
other hand are perceived to be timorous, passive, emotionally, dependent, demonstrative
loving, patient, self sacrificing and peaceful by nature relationship specifically within the
family, take precedence over everything else. Women as mother and wives are
predestined roles. Bannawe (2004) stated that women are not to be trusted with major
decision, since they operate not by reason but by intuition. Hence, they are as fickle as
the weather. Women are still to be liberated from subsidiary roles implying their docility
and domesticity. Even as more succeeded in breaking the cultural wall that defines their
personalities and life directions, women still have to battle societal impositions that
restrict as self fulfilled individuals.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
6
Gendered Division of Labor in Rice Farming
Women and men farmers have different responsibilities in agricultural production
systems, including rice farming. This is in part due to type of local ecosystem and
farming systems. The percentage of labor supplied by women for rice cultivation varies
from 3% for floating rice cultivation (using animal labor). According to FAO, (1984)
there is a clear division of labor between crops according to gender. Swamp land farming
is completely women’s duty. Men cultivate cash crops and their fields are usually larger.
Women hold the responsibility for producing subsistence foods crops for household
consumption on their own plot or on the communal household fields.
In almost all rice farming areas of Asia, men traditionally undertake such
activities such a land preparation, and field leveling. Women on the other hand are
responsible for sowing, transplanting, weeding and crop processing (FAO, 1997).
Other factors such as the introduction and diffusion of improved rice production
including rice varieties, irrigation, use of fertilizers and herbicides and direct seeding
have impacted the gendered division of labor on farm. Mac Phail and Bowles (1989)
noted that on irrigated farm in Sulawesi, Indonesia, women spent more time on farm
duties rather than in rain fed farms but their relative share of labor and cash earnings was
lower than in rain fed areas. They also noted that no matter what techniques were used,
men were primarily responsible for the task of land preparation, bunch fixing, weeding,
fertilizing; women performed most of the work associated with harvested and post
harvest activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
7
Gender Issues
Clemente (1997) reported that employment and education training therefore need
to be influenced toward human resource training development planning that is more
gender responsive. A wide change of occupational choices should be opened up to
women. Thus, women’s access to training, may open up new jobs and occupations so as
to increase women’s earning capacity, need serious consideration. Vocational training
institutions, whose training programs are traditional male dominated, need to change
policies to encourage the participation of female trainees.
It is necessary to deal with gender issues in agriculture rather than focus only on
women farmers. The situation of women cannot be understood except in relation to that
women’s involvement in agriculture activities and affected by the nature of men, women,
dynamics. This is particularly true in farm households in where both the husband and
wife farmers and there own but relatively autonomous productive system. Women
farmers as heads of households and as farm managers to be compared with men farmers
in similar and socio-economic and agro-ecological conditions to determine what needs
constraints and interest are shared by men and women and what gender specific.
Working women throughout the world continue to face the “double burden” of
being the primary home maker while holding down a job outside the home. (World Book
Encyclopedia, 1990). It is further stated in the encyclopedia that the discrimination still
closes many occupation to most women. Women work much less as a group because in
most countries, equal pay equal work does not exist. More and more women work during
their entire lifetime. Families dependent on only male breadwinner account for less than
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
8
one third of the total, more than one family is then dependent entirely for women support
and almost half of these families are poor.
Teodoro (1996) reported that women work longer hours than men in almost every
country. They do about 53% of all work and spend two thirds of their time in unpaid
labor in developing countries. Surprisingly, the figure are not much better in
industrialized countries, where men do an average of 52% of the total work but also
spend to thirds of their time in unpaid labor.
Mendoza (1985) stated that the Filipino males financial standing is . responsible
for disparities. For instance, the AB Filipino male employment and source of income is
secured: After work he drinks, dates, dances and play golf and other sports. On the
weekends, he goes out of town, shops and eats out. His savings go to money markets,
placements and more business. He aspires for wealth, fame, recognition and power as the
ultimate trip.
Delmondo (1984) mentioned that diversification of farming activities is practiced
in variety of ways to increase farm income under such circumstances, women play a
significant role in decision making on the farm management and in the economics and
financial aspects of the farm family, as such, they also contribute to the bulk of the farm
labor. Studies show that in some countries, about 42% of women makes agricultural
production decisions.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
9
Gender and Development
Ward (1988) as cited by Lawiguey (2004) reported that when a society’s economy
is based on a simple domestic mode of production, economic and domestic roles tend to
be integrated for both women and men. But as a society modernizes and work becomes
capital intensive rather than labor-intensive, women tend to be phased out of the economy
and confined to the domestic sphere. Women “subsidizing” capitalist enterprise by
servicing workers for free and by providing a cheap pool of labor when needed. Women
find it difficult to compete with men for jobs because our interest is nearly related to
those men in some way. Men tend not to support women’s attempts to gain economic
equality because they think this would threaten their superior status in the job market.
These conditions favor the capitalist system by creating a need for the male support
worker to depend on his employer in order to support his family.
Labor Requirements and Utilization
Obias (1974) as cited by Tacbas (1985) stated in his report that rice researches
focused on minimum tillage practices to save labor, multiple and succession cropping
patterns to minimize utilization of time, rainfed, and urban rice land. These are very
important because they make possible the production of other crops like mungbean,
legumes and vegetables in combination with rice.
Longay (1997) stated that farmers plant more rice during their first cropping
because temperature is warmer and the rice plant mature faster. Through his study, he
found out that farmers have plenty of idle time which could be utilized for other non-farm
activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
10
Comafay (2005) findings revealed that in cultivating, planting and harvesting
requires more time and effort. Farmers also claimed that they practice the “Bayanihan
System” (“ob-obbo”) in planting and harvesting. As to their activities they also cultivate
other crops like camote, corn, squash and beans.
Barker (1985) in his report on “The rice economy of Asia” stated that modern
technology is normally visualized as inclining both land-saving and labor-saving
elements. We can find farmers at all stages in the modernization process.
Definition of Terms
1. Gender – a social symbolic construction that expresses the meanings that society
confers of biological sex. Gender varies across cultures overtime within any given
society and in relation to other gender.
2. Role – social definition of expected behaviors and the value associated with them,
internalized by individuals in the process of socialization.
3. Gender role – activities, operations done by both men and women.
4. Labor – a measure of the work done by human doings and is on factors of
production, the others being land capital.
5. Farming – the price of cultivating the land or raising stock, working on the land as
an occupation or way of life.
6. Rice Farming – cultivating the land by planting rice on it. Mode of an agriculture
in which a plot of land produces rice to feel the family working it.
7. Labor Utilization – the amount of manual labor utilized on the different
production activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
METHODOLOGY
Locale and Time of the Study
The research work was conducted in Besao, Mountain Province from October to
December, 2006. Besao is one of the municipalities of Mountain Province. It produces
agricultural crops such as rice, corn, sweet potato, legumes and vegetables.
Respondents of the Study
The respondents of this study were 100 rice farmers in Besao, Mountain Province.
Purposive sampling was done in selecting respondents. Fifty females and fifty males
composed the respondents.
Data Collection
The data was gathered through personal interview using interview schedules.
Data Analysis
The data were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistical tools such as
frequency and percentages.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
12
Figure 1. Location map of the study area, Besao, Mountain Province
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic Profile of the Respondents
In this study, the 100 farmer respondents composed of 50 females and 50 males.
Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, sex, civil
status, number of household members, educational attainment and occupation.
Age. The age of the farmer respondents ranged from 20 to 61 and above.
However, a greater percentage of the respondents belonged to the category 20 years old
and below (40%) and 41-50 years (41%).
Sex. Among the 100 respondents fifty (50%) were females and fifty (50%) were
males.
Civil status. Nearly half (48%) of the respondents were married, (47%) were
single, 4% were widow and 1% was separated.
Number of children. Of 30% of the married respondents have 5-8 children, 21%
of the respondents have 1-4 children and 2% has 9-12 children.
Number of household members. Forty- four (44%) of the respondents have 4-6
number of family members, thirty five (35%) have 7-9 family members, fifteen (15%)
have 1-3 family members and 6% have 10-12 number of household members.
Educational attainment. Table shows that sixty five (65%) of the respondents
reached high school, 15% elementary and 11% college and 9% vocational.
Primary occupation. Rice farming is the primary occupation in the study area.
There were 65% of the total respondents whose primary occupation was farming. Five
(5%) of the respondents were employed and at the same time do rice farming as other
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
14
source of income. Thirty (30%) of the respondents were students engaged in rice farming.
They farmed during Saturdays and Sundays.
Table 1. Demographic profile of the respondents
PROFILE
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Age
20-30
45
45
31-40
6
6
41-50
41
41
51-60
5
5
61 and above
3
3
TOTAL
100
100
Sex
Male
50
50
Female
50
50
TOTAL
100
100
Civil Status
Single
47
47
Married
48
48
Widow
4
4
Separated
1
1
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
15
Table 1. Continued…
PROFILE
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Number of children
1-4
21
39.62
5-8
30
56.61
9-12
2
3.77
TOTAL
53
100
Number of household members
1-3
15
15
4-6
44
44
7-9
35
35
10-12
6
6
TOTAL
100
100
Educational attainment
Elementary
15
15
High school
65
65
College
11
11
TOTAL
100
100
Primary Occupation
Farming
65
65
Employee
5
5
Student
30
30
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
16
Farming Practices
Variety of rice. Table 2 shows that 34% of the respondents planted Taiwan (IR –
36), 33% planted Intan, and 13% planted Los Baños.
Method of planting. All of the respondents in the study area practiced
transplanting.
Method of growing seedling. All the respondents (100%) practiced wet method
in growing seedlings because this method needs lesser time and effort compared to dry
method, according to farmers..
Method of fertilizing. Most of the respondents practiced basal application in their
farms.
Method of irrigation. Most of the respondents (90%) practice flooding in
irrigating their farms, ten (10%) rainfed, this is because of less water from the area they
are farming.
Weed control measure. Manual weeding is the most common control measure
used by respondents.
Pest and disease control. Majority of respondents (80%) use rat traps in
controlling pest, twenty (20%) spray chemical pesticide.
Cropping per year. Table shows that all (100%) of the respondents practice one
cropping per year.
Planting time. Table shows that planting time falls on the month of December to
February (76%) and twenty four (24%) on June-August
Harvesting time. Eighty (80%) of the total respondents harvest on the month of
June to August while twenty (20%) harvest on the month of December to February.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
17
Table 2. Rice farming practices
PRACTICES
FREQUENCY
PERCENT AGE
Varieties of Rice
Taiwan (IR-36)
36
36
Intan
33
33
Los Baños (IR- 62)
13
13
TOTAL
100
100
Methods of planting
Transplanting
100
100
Method of growing seedlings
Wet method
100
100
Method of fertilizing
Basal fertilizing
100
100
Method of irrigation
Flooding
90
90
Rain fed
10
10
TOTAL
100
100
Weed control measures
Manual weeding
100
100
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
18
Table 2. Continued
PRACTICES
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Pest and control disease control
Spray chemical pesticides
20
20
Rat traps
80
8
TOTAL
100
100
Cropping per year
One cropping
100
100
Planting time
December-February
76
76
June-August
24
24
TOTAL
100
100
Harvesting time
June-August
80
80
December –February
20
20
TOTAL
100
100
Labor Utilization and Farm Activities of
the Respondents
Source of labor. Family labor is usually employed in rice farming in the study
area. However, the farmers hire additional labor especially during land preparation,
transplanting, fertilizer application, weeding, harvesting and drying. Thirty (60%) male
respondents hire additional labor for the land preparation. Fifty (100%) female
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
19
respondents hire additional labor for transplanting, fifteen (30%) on fertilizer application,
forty (80%) on weeding, forty five (90%) on harvesting, fifteen (30%) on drying. This
shows that female respondents employ hire labor. As Delmonde (1984) mentioned,
women play a significant role in decision making on the farm management and in the
economics and financial aspects of the farm management and in the economics and
financial aspects of the farm family, as such, they also contribute to the bulk of the farm
labor.
Table 3 shows the types of labor used on the different activities/ operations in rice
farming. Fifty (100%) male respondents employ family labor on seedbed preparation,
land preparation and harvesting, twenty (40%) on transplanting, Seven (14%) on fertilizer
application, thirty-three (66%) on weeding, twenty eight (56%) on drying, forty-six
(92%) on hauling and fourteen (28%) on manual milling. On the other hand female
respondents also employ family labor, forty seven (94%) on seedbed preparation, forty-
five (90%) on land preparation, fifty (100%) on transplanting, forty one (82%) on
fertilizer application, thirty-nine (78%) on weeding and harvesting, thirteen (26%) on
handling/threshing, forty-six (92%) on drying, and twenty six (52%) on manual milling.
Finding shows that there is a little work differentiation regarding farm activities. The
above finding was revealed in the report of Teodoro (1996) that women work longer
hours than men in almost every country.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
20
Table 3. Labor utilization
ACTIVITIES
FAMILY LABOR
HIRED LABOR
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
Seedbed
50
100
47
94
-
-
-
-
TOTAL
50
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
Land preparation
50
100
45
90
30
60
-
-
TOTAL
50
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
Transplanting
20
40
50
100
-
-
50
100
TOTAL
20
40
-
-
-
-
-
-
Fertilizer
7
14
41
82
-
-
15
30
application
Weeding
33
66
39
78
40
80
Bundling/
50
100
39
78
harvesting
Handling/
-
-
13
26
-
-
-
-
Threshing
Drying
28
56
46
92
-
-
15
30
Hauling
46
92
-
-
-
-
-
-
Manual milling
14
8
26
52
(bayo)
Gender Roles
Farm activities by gender. Table 4a shows that 100% male respondents perform
seedbed preparation, land preparation, bundling/harvesting and handling/threshing, 40%
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
21
do transplanting and eradication of pest and diseases, 14% do fertilizer application, 66%
do weeding, 56% do drying, 92% do hauling and 28% do manual milling. On the other
hand, 100% of the female respondents perform land preparation and transplanting, 98%
do seedbed preparation and weeding, 92% do drying, 82% do fertilizer application, 78%
do harvesting, 64% do eradication of pest and diseases, 52% do manual milling, 26% do
threshing and 10% on hauling.
The above finding is in contrast with the report of Bannawe (2004) that males are
more overworked in terms of land preparation since it was discovered in this study that
there is a little work difference between the male respondents and female respondents in
the farm activities.
However, activities done within the household setting such as drying and manual
milling or pounding is most done by female as was the case in the FAO report (1997).
Table 4a. Farm activities by gender
ACTIVITIES
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
1) Seedbed Preparation
50
100
49
98
2) Land Preparation
50
100
50
100
3) Transplanting
20
40
50
100
4) Fertilizer Application
7
14
41
82
5) Weeding
33
66
49
98
6) Eradication of Pest and
20
40
32
64
diseases
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
22
Table 4a. Continued
ACTIVITIES
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
7) Harvesting/Bundling
50
100
39
78
8) Handling/Threshing
50
100
13
26
9) Drying
28
56
46
92
10) Hauling
46
92
5
10
11) Manual Milling (bayo)
14
28
26
52
* Multiple response
Community activities. Table 4b shows the gender participation in rice farming.
Twenty five (50%) male respondents reported to be attending rice farming
seminars/trainings, 32 (64%) participated in meetings related to implementation of rice
production project, 20 (40%) were members of farmers association and cooperatives, and
32 (64%) were involved in Bayanihan activities or the “ag-ogbo”. On the other hand 25
(50%) female respondents attended rice farming seminars/trainings, 27 (54%)
participated in meetings related to implementation of rice production project, 24 (48%)
were members of farmers association and cooperatives, and 29 (58%) were involved in
Bayanihan activities or the “ag-ogbo”. The result shows that both men and women join
community activities but the participation rate is rather low to moderate.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
23
Table 4b. Social community activities
ACTIVITY
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
1) Attend rice farming
25
50
25
50
seminars/ trainings
2) Participate in meetings
32
64
27
54
related to implementation
of rice farming project
3) Membership to farmers
20
40
24
48
association and
cooperation
4) Involvement in Bayanihan
32
64
29
58
activities (ag-ogbo)
*Multiple response
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
This research was conducted at Besao, Mountain Province from June to
September 2006.
These were 100 rice farmers taken as a respondents and interviewed using an
interview schedule.
There were three varieties of rice planted by the respondents, the Taiwan (IR-36),
Intan and Los Banos (IR-62). Transplanting is the common method of planting done by
the farmers. In terms of growing seedlings, wet method is commonly done by the
farmers. On the application of fertilizer, basal application was usually done. Flooding
was commonly done in irrigating the fields. In cleaning the farm manual weeding was
the method done by the respondents to clean the farm. To control pest and diseases they
sprayed chemical pesticides and used rat traps to kill the pests. Most of the respondents
planted rice once a year.
Planting time was December to February, some planted in the months of June to
August. Rice planted in December to February were harvested in the months of June to
August, and those planted in the month of June to August were harvested in December to
February.
Family labor was usually employed in rice farming in the study area. However,
the farmers hired additional labor especially during land preparation, transplanting,
fertilizer application, harvesting, weeding and drying.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
25
There was little work difference between the male respondents and female
respondents in farm activities. Participation rate in social community activities by male
female was low.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions were made.
1. Rice farmers in Besao use improved rice varieties planted mostly in December
and harvested in June. Traditional rice farming method is used.
2. Family labor is usually employed in most farm activities except during weeding,
fertilizer application, transplanting, harvesting and drying.
3. There is no clear cut distinction of gender roles in rice farming in Besao. All
activities are performed by both men and women. Participation rate in social
activities by both male and female is low.
Recommendation
1. Strategies to increase the participation rate of rice farmers in social activities like
attendance to meetings, seminars/workshops and other community activities
should be tried in order that the farmers maybe able to take full advantage of
learning from these activities. Such strategies are; holding meetings on Sundays
after church gathering, after clinic hours, holding meetings in the evening at the
barangay hall, organizing an organization related to rice farming.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
26
2. Farmers should participate on community activities for them to progress, they
should access to cooperatives/banks where they can get materials they need in
their farm. They must be updated during meetings.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
LITERATURE CITED
BANNAWE, N.A.T, 2004. Gender Roles in Rice Production among the Farmers of
Capinitan, Sabangan, Mountain Province. BS Thesis. Benguet State University,
La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 24.
BARKER, R. 1985. The Rice Economy of Asia. Washington D.C.. Resource for the
Future, Inc. P. 2-3
CLEMENTE, 1997. Why Men and Women Think Differently. Newsweek. Pp. 26-27.
COMAFAY, M. F. 2005. Time Utilization of Rice Farmers in Maligcong, Bontoc, Mt.
Province. BS. Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet. P. 28.
DELMONDO, M. 1984. The Role of Women in Intergrated Farming. FAO Report. FAO
Regional Office, Bangkok Thailand. P. 34.
DIONISIO, E. 1995. More Alike than Different Animal Production and Health
Commission, for the Asia and the Pacific. NCRFW. P.I.
FAO, 1984. Women in Rice-Farming Systems: Women in Agriculture Production and
Rural Development Service. FAO Report. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok,
Thailand. P. 43.
FAO, 1997. Key to Sustainability and Food Security. FAO Report. FAO Regional Office,
Bangkok, Thailand. P. 56.
LAWIGUEY, C.P., 2004. Gender Issues Affecting Development of Rural Families in
Tinoc, Ifugao, BS Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 28.
MAC PHAIL and P. BOWLES, 1989. Technical Change and Intra-household Welfare:
Journal of Development Studies.
LONGAY, G.L. 1997. Time Utilization of Rice Farmers in Payeo, Besao, Mountain
Province. BS. Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 23.
MARCELINO, S.G. 1998. Gender and Development Awareness and Perception at
Benguet State University. BS Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad,
Benguet. P. 21.
MENDOZA, L.F. 1995. Gender Issues: Man Child: Clipping Volume 2. No. 3. P. 32.
RIVEROS, F. 1999. Proceedings of the 18th Session of the International Rice
Commission. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna. P. 43.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
28
TACBAS, L.B. 1985. Performance of Four Varieties of Lowland Rice with Relay
Cropping under Lagangilang, Abra Conditions. MS Thesis. Benguet State
University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 89.
TEODORO, L. Y. 1996. Gender Issues: Its Women’s Month, but still a Man’s World.
Clipping Volume 5. No. 2. P. 44.
WARD, K. 1988. Women and Works. Sage Publications. New Burg Park. P.13.
WORLD BOOK ENCYCLOPEDIA, 1990. USA World Book Inc. Vol. 21. P. 105.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
BUAG-AY, FELIZA D. APRIL 2008. Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of
Rice Farming in Besao, Mountain Province. Benguet State University, La Trinidad
Benguet.
Adviser: Marie Klondy T. Dagupen, Ph D.
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to determine the gender roles and labor utilization of
rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province and identify the dominant rice farming
practices of the farmers.
The data was gathered with the use of interview schedules with 100 respondents
and analyzed using frequency count and percentage. The respondents were engaged in
rice farming as their major source of income and most of them planted rice once a year.
Family labor was generally employed in the study area. Land preparation,
transplanting, harvesting, threshing require more time and effort for the respondents.
There were three varieties of rice planted by the respondents, namely, Taiwan
(IR- 36), Intan and Los Baños (IR-62). Transplanting was the common method of
planting done by the respondents, wet method was practiced by the respondents in
growing seedlings. Basal application was done in application of fertilizer, flooding was
commonly done, manual weeding was practiced in cleaning their fields. To control pest
and diseases, the rice farmers sprayed chemical pesticides and use rat traps to kill these
pests. Respondents who plant on the month of December to February will harvest on the
month of June to August and those who plant on the month of June to August will
harvest on the month of December to February.
Rice farmers in Besao used improved rice varieties planted mostly in December
and harvested in June. Traditional rice farming method is used. Family labor is usually
employed in most farm activities except during weeding, fertilizer application,
transplanting, harvesting and drying. There is no clear cut distinction of gender roles in
rice farming in Besao. All activities are performed by both men and women. Participation
rate in social activities by both male and female is low. It is therefore recommended that
strategies to increase the participation rate of rice farmers in social activities like
attendance to meetings, seminars/workshop and other community activities should be
tried in order that farmers maybe able to take full advantage of learning from there
activities and farmers should participate on community activities for them to progress,
they should access to cooperatives/banks where they can get materials they need in their
farm.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Objective of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Scope and Delimitation of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Status and Characteristics of Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Gender Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Gendered Division of Labor in Rice Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Gender Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Gender and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Labor Requirements and Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
METHODOLOGY
Locale and Time of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Respondents of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
iii
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic Profile of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Farming Profile of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Labor Utilization and Farm Activities of
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Gender Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .
27
iv
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In our society, there is existence of gender bias, both sexes work hand and hand
but in most cases, the contributions of women are not recognized. For instance the
function of women in the home are usually not included as production output for GNP
accounting. Men as dictated by culture are seen to be the superior ones. The Philippine
society is largely patriarchal. Men are tasked with the major responsibilities for the home
and community. They have to devote their responsibilities in their respective fields of
work where they can attain the highest position possible. On the other hand, women are
seen to be disadvantaged and disempowered. They have a wide range of responsibilities
because aside from their outside work they also do domestic chores, a situation which
make it a double burden for them (Marcelino, 1998).
The Philippine economy is largely dependent on agriculture especially rice
farming where men and women play a major role, actively participating in various forms
of activities.
As one crop contributing to food security, rice is the staple food of more than half
of the world’s population, most of whom live in less developed countries. In terms of
global security requirements, it has been argued that rice production must be increased by
70% to support the needs of the world’s population by 2025 (Riveros, 1999).
The differences in farm activities are dependent on the culture and tradition of
societies. Thus, this study will describe the gender roles in the different rice farming
activities in Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
2
Besao is one of the ten municipalities of Mountain Province. Rice is the
traditional dominant agricultural crop in the community. Besao is situated on the borders
of the adjacent provinces of Mountain Province, south by Tadian, on the east by Sagada,
on the west by Quirino, Ilocos Sur, and on the north by Tubo, Abra. Besao has a land
area of 17,361.50 hectares classified into forest lands, timberlakes, unclassified forest,
built-up areas and agricultural lands.
Statement of the Problem
The study aimed to answer the following questions.
1. What are the dominant rice farming practices in Besao, Mountain Province?
2. What is the labor utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province?
3. What are the gender roles in rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of the study was to determine the gender roles and labor
utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Specifically the study aimed to:
1. Describe the dominant rice farming practices in Besao, Mountain Province.
2. Determine the labor utilization of rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
3. Determine the gender roles in rice farming in Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
3
Importance of the Study
The information from this study may be used for government and non-
government agencies in planning and implementing development programs in Besao. The
result will also provide information and useful guidelines to other researchers for more
comprehensive studies in the future.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The study focused on the gender roles and labor utilization of rice farming in
Besao, Mountain Province.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Status and Characteristics of Women
Ward (1988) as cited by Bannawe (2004) reported that female labor dominate
light industries such as garments, food processing, handicrafts and the assembly of
electronic components. The job women get in these industries, through income earning,
are analogous to the task they perform within the home sewing, making ornaments and
doing other fiddle things that need finger. In the profession, women are teachers and
nurses just as they are in the family.
In many societies, people believed women to be naturally more emotional and
less decisive than men. They have usually had fewer right and a lower social status than
men. The traditional role of a wife is centered around their households, being mother
dominated (World Book Encyclopedia, 1990).
Gender Roles
Women play an important role in shaping societal value and attitudes to
environment on the young. Their perspective is therefore crucial to effective environment
management programs that are held to improve the quality of life in the 21st century
dawn. Bannawe (2004) found out that in traditional farming, males prepare the land for
farming and females do the weeding and harvesting. She also found that males are more
overworked in terms of land preparation because they are stronger than the females.
Females perceived that they are overworked in terms of performing rice production
activities. There is also an inequality in terms of participation in rice production activities
and that female perceived they have more responsibility.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
5
Gender roles are also justified by gender stereo types about different personality
traits, skills and capabilities that men and women have as Dionisio, (1995) enumerated.
Men are said to be physically stronger than women, thus fit to take on work outside of the
home. Women on the other hand are perceived as fit only for household work that does
not require great physical exertion. Men are said to be brave, aggressive, independent and
good set of controlling their emotions. The center of their lives is their work, relationship
are secondary. Their decision are said to base on reasons, hence solid and unshakable.
All these makes them better equipped in the eyes of the society to head families business
enterprise, social and political organizations, communities and nations. Women on the
other hand are perceived to be timorous, passive, emotionally, dependent, demonstrative
loving, patient, self sacrificing and peaceful by nature relationship specifically within the
family, take precedence over everything else. Women as mother and wives are
predestined roles. Bannawe (2004) stated that women are not to be trusted with major
decision, since they operate not by reason but by intuition. Hence, they are as fickle as
the weather. Women are still to be liberated from subsidiary roles implying their docility
and domesticity. Even as more succeeded in breaking the cultural wall that defines their
personalities and life directions, women still have to battle societal impositions that
restrict as self fulfilled individuals.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
6
Gendered Division of Labor in Rice Farming
Women and men farmers have different responsibilities in agricultural production
systems, including rice farming. This is in part due to type of local ecosystem and
farming systems. The percentage of labor supplied by women for rice cultivation varies
from 3% for floating rice cultivation (using animal labor). According to FAO, (1984)
there is a clear division of labor between crops according to gender. Swamp land farming
is completely women’s duty. Men cultivate cash crops and their fields are usually larger.
Women hold the responsibility for producing subsistence foods crops for household
consumption on their own plot or on the communal household fields.
In almost all rice farming areas of Asia, men traditionally undertake such
activities such a land preparation, and field leveling. Women on the other hand are
responsible for sowing, transplanting, weeding and crop processing (FAO, 1997).
Other factors such as the introduction and diffusion of improved rice production
including rice varieties, irrigation, use of fertilizers and herbicides and direct seeding
have impacted the gendered division of labor on farm. Mac Phail and Bowles (1989)
noted that on irrigated farm in Sulawesi, Indonesia, women spent more time on farm
duties rather than in rain fed farms but their relative share of labor and cash earnings was
lower than in rain fed areas. They also noted that no matter what techniques were used,
men were primarily responsible for the task of land preparation, bunch fixing, weeding,
fertilizing; women performed most of the work associated with harvested and post
harvest activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
7
Gender Issues
Clemente (1997) reported that employment and education training therefore need
to be influenced toward human resource training development planning that is more
gender responsive. A wide change of occupational choices should be opened up to
women. Thus, women’s access to training, may open up new jobs and occupations so as
to increase women’s earning capacity, need serious consideration. Vocational training
institutions, whose training programs are traditional male dominated, need to change
policies to encourage the participation of female trainees.
It is necessary to deal with gender issues in agriculture rather than focus only on
women farmers. The situation of women cannot be understood except in relation to that
women’s involvement in agriculture activities and affected by the nature of men, women,
dynamics. This is particularly true in farm households in where both the husband and
wife farmers and there own but relatively autonomous productive system. Women
farmers as heads of households and as farm managers to be compared with men farmers
in similar and socio-economic and agro-ecological conditions to determine what needs
constraints and interest are shared by men and women and what gender specific.
Working women throughout the world continue to face the “double burden” of
being the primary home maker while holding down a job outside the home. (World Book
Encyclopedia, 1990). It is further stated in the encyclopedia that the discrimination still
closes many occupation to most women. Women work much less as a group because in
most countries, equal pay equal work does not exist. More and more women work during
their entire lifetime. Families dependent on only male breadwinner account for less than
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
8
one third of the total, more than one family is then dependent entirely for women support
and almost half of these families are poor.
Teodoro (1996) reported that women work longer hours than men in almost every
country. They do about 53% of all work and spend two thirds of their time in unpaid
labor in developing countries. Surprisingly, the figure are not much better in
industrialized countries, where men do an average of 52% of the total work but also
spend to thirds of their time in unpaid labor.
Mendoza (1985) stated that the Filipino males financial standing is . responsible
for disparities. For instance, the AB Filipino male employment and source of income is
secured: After work he drinks, dates, dances and play golf and other sports. On the
weekends, he goes out of town, shops and eats out. His savings go to money markets,
placements and more business. He aspires for wealth, fame, recognition and power as the
ultimate trip.
Delmondo (1984) mentioned that diversification of farming activities is practiced
in variety of ways to increase farm income under such circumstances, women play a
significant role in decision making on the farm management and in the economics and
financial aspects of the farm family, as such, they also contribute to the bulk of the farm
labor. Studies show that in some countries, about 42% of women makes agricultural
production decisions.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
9
Gender and Development
Ward (1988) as cited by Lawiguey (2004) reported that when a society’s economy
is based on a simple domestic mode of production, economic and domestic roles tend to
be integrated for both women and men. But as a society modernizes and work becomes
capital intensive rather than labor-intensive, women tend to be phased out of the economy
and confined to the domestic sphere. Women “subsidizing” capitalist enterprise by
servicing workers for free and by providing a cheap pool of labor when needed. Women
find it difficult to compete with men for jobs because our interest is nearly related to
those men in some way. Men tend not to support women’s attempts to gain economic
equality because they think this would threaten their superior status in the job market.
These conditions favor the capitalist system by creating a need for the male support
worker to depend on his employer in order to support his family.
Labor Requirements and Utilization
Obias (1974) as cited by Tacbas (1985) stated in his report that rice researches
focused on minimum tillage practices to save labor, multiple and succession cropping
patterns to minimize utilization of time, rainfed, and urban rice land. These are very
important because they make possible the production of other crops like mungbean,
legumes and vegetables in combination with rice.
Longay (1997) stated that farmers plant more rice during their first cropping
because temperature is warmer and the rice plant mature faster. Through his study, he
found out that farmers have plenty of idle time which could be utilized for other non-farm
activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
10
Comafay (2005) findings revealed that in cultivating, planting and harvesting
requires more time and effort. Farmers also claimed that they practice the “Bayanihan
System” (“ob-obbo”) in planting and harvesting. As to their activities they also cultivate
other crops like camote, corn, squash and beans.
Barker (1985) in his report on “The rice economy of Asia” stated that modern
technology is normally visualized as inclining both land-saving and labor-saving
elements. We can find farmers at all stages in the modernization process.
Definition of Terms
1. Gender – a social symbolic construction that expresses the meanings that society
confers of biological sex. Gender varies across cultures overtime within any given
society and in relation to other gender.
2. Role – social definition of expected behaviors and the value associated with them,
internalized by individuals in the process of socialization.
3. Gender role – activities, operations done by both men and women.
4. Labor – a measure of the work done by human doings and is on factors of
production, the others being land capital.
5. Farming – the price of cultivating the land or raising stock, working on the land as
an occupation or way of life.
6. Rice Farming – cultivating the land by planting rice on it. Mode of an agriculture
in which a plot of land produces rice to feel the family working it.
7. Labor Utilization – the amount of manual labor utilized on the different
production activities.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
METHODOLOGY
Locale and Time of the Study
The research work was conducted in Besao, Mountain Province from October to
December, 2006. Besao is one of the municipalities of Mountain Province. It produces
agricultural crops such as rice, corn, sweet potato, legumes and vegetables.
Respondents of the Study
The respondents of this study were 100 rice farmers in Besao, Mountain Province.
Purposive sampling was done in selecting respondents. Fifty females and fifty males
composed the respondents.
Data Collection
The data was gathered through personal interview using interview schedules.
Data Analysis
The data were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistical tools such as
frequency and percentages.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
12
Figure 1. Location map of the study area, Besao, Mountain Province
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic Profile of the Respondents
In this study, the 100 farmer respondents composed of 50 females and 50 males.
Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age, sex, civil
status, number of household members, educational attainment and occupation.
Age. The age of the farmer respondents ranged from 20 to 61 and above.
However, a greater percentage of the respondents belonged to the category 20 years old
and below (40%) and 41-50 years (41%).
Sex. Among the 100 respondents fifty (50%) were females and fifty (50%) were
males.
Civil status. Nearly half (48%) of the respondents were married, (47%) were
single, 4% were widow and 1% was separated.
Number of children. Of 30% of the married respondents have 5-8 children, 21%
of the respondents have 1-4 children and 2% has 9-12 children.
Number of household members. Forty- four (44%) of the respondents have 4-6
number of family members, thirty five (35%) have 7-9 family members, fifteen (15%)
have 1-3 family members and 6% have 10-12 number of household members.
Educational attainment. Table shows that sixty five (65%) of the respondents
reached high school, 15% elementary and 11% college and 9% vocational.
Primary occupation. Rice farming is the primary occupation in the study area.
There were 65% of the total respondents whose primary occupation was farming. Five
(5%) of the respondents were employed and at the same time do rice farming as other
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
14
source of income. Thirty (30%) of the respondents were students engaged in rice farming.
They farmed during Saturdays and Sundays.
Table 1. Demographic profile of the respondents
PROFILE
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Age
20-30
45
45
31-40
6
6
41-50
41
41
51-60
5
5
61 and above
3
3
TOTAL
100
100
Sex
Male
50
50
Female
50
50
TOTAL
100
100
Civil Status
Single
47
47
Married
48
48
Widow
4
4
Separated
1
1
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
15
Table 1. Continued…
PROFILE
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Number of children
1-4
21
39.62
5-8
30
56.61
9-12
2
3.77
TOTAL
53
100
Number of household members
1-3
15
15
4-6
44
44
7-9
35
35
10-12
6
6
TOTAL
100
100
Educational attainment
Elementary
15
15
High school
65
65
College
11
11
TOTAL
100
100
Primary Occupation
Farming
65
65
Employee
5
5
Student
30
30
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
16
Farming Practices
Variety of rice. Table 2 shows that 34% of the respondents planted Taiwan (IR –
36), 33% planted Intan, and 13% planted Los Baños.
Method of planting. All of the respondents in the study area practiced
transplanting.
Method of growing seedling. All the respondents (100%) practiced wet method
in growing seedlings because this method needs lesser time and effort compared to dry
method, according to farmers..
Method of fertilizing. Most of the respondents practiced basal application in their
farms.
Method of irrigation. Most of the respondents (90%) practice flooding in
irrigating their farms, ten (10%) rainfed, this is because of less water from the area they
are farming.
Weed control measure. Manual weeding is the most common control measure
used by respondents.
Pest and disease control. Majority of respondents (80%) use rat traps in
controlling pest, twenty (20%) spray chemical pesticide.
Cropping per year. Table shows that all (100%) of the respondents practice one
cropping per year.
Planting time. Table shows that planting time falls on the month of December to
February (76%) and twenty four (24%) on June-August
Harvesting time. Eighty (80%) of the total respondents harvest on the month of
June to August while twenty (20%) harvest on the month of December to February.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
17
Table 2. Rice farming practices
PRACTICES
FREQUENCY
PERCENT AGE
Varieties of Rice
Taiwan (IR-36)
36
36
Intan
33
33
Los Baños (IR- 62)
13
13
TOTAL
100
100
Methods of planting
Transplanting
100
100
Method of growing seedlings
Wet method
100
100
Method of fertilizing
Basal fertilizing
100
100
Method of irrigation
Flooding
90
90
Rain fed
10
10
TOTAL
100
100
Weed control measures
Manual weeding
100
100
TOTAL
100
100
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
18
Table 2. Continued
PRACTICES
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Pest and control disease control
Spray chemical pesticides
20
20
Rat traps
80
8
TOTAL
100
100
Cropping per year
One cropping
100
100
Planting time
December-February
76
76
June-August
24
24
TOTAL
100
100
Harvesting time
June-August
80
80
December –February
20
20
TOTAL
100
100
Labor Utilization and Farm Activities of
the Respondents
Source of labor. Family labor is usually employed in rice farming in the study
area. However, the farmers hire additional labor especially during land preparation,
transplanting, fertilizer application, weeding, harvesting and drying. Thirty (60%) male
respondents hire additional labor for the land preparation. Fifty (100%) female
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
19
respondents hire additional labor for transplanting, fifteen (30%) on fertilizer application,
forty (80%) on weeding, forty five (90%) on harvesting, fifteen (30%) on drying. This
shows that female respondents employ hire labor. As Delmonde (1984) mentioned,
women play a significant role in decision making on the farm management and in the
economics and financial aspects of the farm management and in the economics and
financial aspects of the farm family, as such, they also contribute to the bulk of the farm
labor.
Table 3 shows the types of labor used on the different activities/ operations in rice
farming. Fifty (100%) male respondents employ family labor on seedbed preparation,
land preparation and harvesting, twenty (40%) on transplanting, Seven (14%) on fertilizer
application, thirty-three (66%) on weeding, twenty eight (56%) on drying, forty-six
(92%) on hauling and fourteen (28%) on manual milling. On the other hand female
respondents also employ family labor, forty seven (94%) on seedbed preparation, forty-
five (90%) on land preparation, fifty (100%) on transplanting, forty one (82%) on
fertilizer application, thirty-nine (78%) on weeding and harvesting, thirteen (26%) on
handling/threshing, forty-six (92%) on drying, and twenty six (52%) on manual milling.
Finding shows that there is a little work differentiation regarding farm activities. The
above finding was revealed in the report of Teodoro (1996) that women work longer
hours than men in almost every country.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
20
Table 3. Labor utilization
ACTIVITIES
FAMILY LABOR
HIRED LABOR
MALE
FEMALE
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
Seedbed
50
100
47
94
-
-
-
-
TOTAL
50
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
Land preparation
50
100
45
90
30
60
-
-
TOTAL
50
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
Transplanting
20
40
50
100
-
-
50
100
TOTAL
20
40
-
-
-
-
-
-
Fertilizer
7
14
41
82
-
-
15
30
application
Weeding
33
66
39
78
40
80
Bundling/
50
100
39
78
harvesting
Handling/
-
-
13
26
-
-
-
-
Threshing
Drying
28
56
46
92
-
-
15
30
Hauling
46
92
-
-
-
-
-
-
Manual milling
14
8
26
52
(bayo)
Gender Roles
Farm activities by gender. Table 4a shows that 100% male respondents perform
seedbed preparation, land preparation, bundling/harvesting and handling/threshing, 40%
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
21
do transplanting and eradication of pest and diseases, 14% do fertilizer application, 66%
do weeding, 56% do drying, 92% do hauling and 28% do manual milling. On the other
hand, 100% of the female respondents perform land preparation and transplanting, 98%
do seedbed preparation and weeding, 92% do drying, 82% do fertilizer application, 78%
do harvesting, 64% do eradication of pest and diseases, 52% do manual milling, 26% do
threshing and 10% on hauling.
The above finding is in contrast with the report of Bannawe (2004) that males are
more overworked in terms of land preparation since it was discovered in this study that
there is a little work difference between the male respondents and female respondents in
the farm activities.
However, activities done within the household setting such as drying and manual
milling or pounding is most done by female as was the case in the FAO report (1997).
Table 4a. Farm activities by gender
ACTIVITIES
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
1) Seedbed Preparation
50
100
49
98
2) Land Preparation
50
100
50
100
3) Transplanting
20
40
50
100
4) Fertilizer Application
7
14
41
82
5) Weeding
33
66
49
98
6) Eradication of Pest and
20
40
32
64
diseases
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
22
Table 4a. Continued
ACTIVITIES
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
7) Harvesting/Bundling
50
100
39
78
8) Handling/Threshing
50
100
13
26
9) Drying
28
56
46
92
10) Hauling
46
92
5
10
11) Manual Milling (bayo)
14
28
26
52
* Multiple response
Community activities. Table 4b shows the gender participation in rice farming.
Twenty five (50%) male respondents reported to be attending rice farming
seminars/trainings, 32 (64%) participated in meetings related to implementation of rice
production project, 20 (40%) were members of farmers association and cooperatives, and
32 (64%) were involved in Bayanihan activities or the “ag-ogbo”. On the other hand 25
(50%) female respondents attended rice farming seminars/trainings, 27 (54%)
participated in meetings related to implementation of rice production project, 24 (48%)
were members of farmers association and cooperatives, and 29 (58%) were involved in
Bayanihan activities or the “ag-ogbo”. The result shows that both men and women join
community activities but the participation rate is rather low to moderate.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
23
Table 4b. Social community activities
ACTIVITY
MALE
FEMALE
F
%
F
%
1) Attend rice farming
25
50
25
50
seminars/ trainings
2) Participate in meetings
32
64
27
54
related to implementation
of rice farming project
3) Membership to farmers
20
40
24
48
association and
cooperation
4) Involvement in Bayanihan
32
64
29
58
activities (ag-ogbo)
*Multiple response
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
This research was conducted at Besao, Mountain Province from June to
September 2006.
These were 100 rice farmers taken as a respondents and interviewed using an
interview schedule.
There were three varieties of rice planted by the respondents, the Taiwan (IR-36),
Intan and Los Banos (IR-62). Transplanting is the common method of planting done by
the farmers. In terms of growing seedlings, wet method is commonly done by the
farmers. On the application of fertilizer, basal application was usually done. Flooding
was commonly done in irrigating the fields. In cleaning the farm manual weeding was
the method done by the respondents to clean the farm. To control pest and diseases they
sprayed chemical pesticides and used rat traps to kill the pests. Most of the respondents
planted rice once a year.
Planting time was December to February, some planted in the months of June to
August. Rice planted in December to February were harvested in the months of June to
August, and those planted in the month of June to August were harvested in December to
February.
Family labor was usually employed in rice farming in the study area. However,
the farmers hired additional labor especially during land preparation, transplanting,
fertilizer application, harvesting, weeding and drying.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
25
There was little work difference between the male respondents and female
respondents in farm activities. Participation rate in social community activities by male
female was low.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions were made.
1. Rice farmers in Besao use improved rice varieties planted mostly in December
and harvested in June. Traditional rice farming method is used.
2. Family labor is usually employed in most farm activities except during weeding,
fertilizer application, transplanting, harvesting and drying.
3. There is no clear cut distinction of gender roles in rice farming in Besao. All
activities are performed by both men and women. Participation rate in social
activities by both male and female is low.
Recommendation
1. Strategies to increase the participation rate of rice farmers in social activities like
attendance to meetings, seminars/workshops and other community activities
should be tried in order that the farmers maybe able to take full advantage of
learning from these activities. Such strategies are; holding meetings on Sundays
after church gathering, after clinic hours, holding meetings in the evening at the
barangay hall, organizing an organization related to rice farming.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
26
2. Farmers should participate on community activities for them to progress, they
should access to cooperatives/banks where they can get materials they need in
their farm. They must be updated during meetings.
Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
LITERATURE CITED
BANNAWE, N.A.T, 2004. Gender Roles in Rice Production among the Farmers of
Capinitan, Sabangan, Mountain Province. BS Thesis. Benguet State University,
La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 24.
BARKER, R. 1985. The Rice Economy of Asia. Washington D.C.. Resource for the
Future, Inc. P. 2-3
CLEMENTE, 1997. Why Men and Women Think Differently. Newsweek. Pp. 26-27.
COMAFAY, M. F. 2005. Time Utilization of Rice Farmers in Maligcong, Bontoc, Mt.
Province. BS. Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet. P. 28.
DELMONDO, M. 1984. The Role of Women in Intergrated Farming. FAO Report. FAO
Regional Office, Bangkok Thailand. P. 34.
DIONISIO, E. 1995. More Alike than Different Animal Production and Health
Commission, for the Asia and the Pacific. NCRFW. P.I.
FAO, 1984. Women in Rice-Farming Systems: Women in Agriculture Production and
Rural Development Service. FAO Report. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok,
Thailand. P. 43.
FAO, 1997. Key to Sustainability and Food Security. FAO Report. FAO Regional Office,
Bangkok, Thailand. P. 56.
LAWIGUEY, C.P., 2004. Gender Issues Affecting Development of Rural Families in
Tinoc, Ifugao, BS Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 28.
MAC PHAIL and P. BOWLES, 1989. Technical Change and Intra-household Welfare:
Journal of Development Studies.
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Province. BS. Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 23.
MARCELINO, S.G. 1998. Gender and Development Awareness and Perception at
Benguet State University. BS Thesis. Benguet State University, La Trinidad,
Benguet. P. 21.
MENDOZA, L.F. 1995. Gender Issues: Man Child: Clipping Volume 2. No. 3. P. 32.
RIVEROS, F. 1999. Proceedings of the 18th Session of the International Rice
Commission. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna. P. 43.
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TACBAS, L.B. 1985. Performance of Four Varieties of Lowland Rice with Relay
Cropping under Lagangilang, Abra Conditions. MS Thesis. Benguet State
University, La Trinidad, Benguet. P. 89.
TEODORO, L. Y. 1996. Gender Issues: Its Women’s Month, but still a Man’s World.
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Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao,
Mountain Province / Feliza D. Buag-ay. 2008
Document Outline
- Gender Roles and Labor Utilization of Rice Farming in Besao, Mountain Province
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
- ABSTRACT
- TABLE OF CONTENTS
- INTRODUCTION
- Rationale
- Statement of the Problem
- Objectives of the Study
- Importance of the Study
- Scope and Delimitation of the Study
- REVIEW OF LITERATURE
- Status and Characteristics of Women
- Gender Roles
- Gendered Division of Labor in Rice Farming
- Gender Issues
- Gender and Development
- Labor Requirements and Utilization
- Definition of Terms
- METHODOLOGY
- Locale and Time of the Study
- Respondents of the Study
- Data Collection
- Data Analysis
- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- Demographic Profile of the Respondents
- Farming Practices
- Labor Utilization and Farm Activities ofthe Respondents
- Gender Roles
- SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
- Summary
- Conclusion
- Recommendation
- LITERATURE CITED