Peña, M. N. (1998). The Cordillera woman as ...
Peña, M. N. (1998). The Cordillera woman as overseas domestic worker.
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Baguio City: Baguio Colleges Foundation.
Physical location: University of the Cordilleras Library, Baguio City
ABSTRACT
The rising trend in female overseas employment raises concerns and calls
for a special attention because it continues to raise critical issues in evolving
policies and programs for the country’s participation in the international labor
economy. To asses the gains of overseas employment, it is equally important to
unearth and understand its contradictions particularly the crisis-ridden social
character of the employment of women in marginalized job categories.
As a starting ground to comprehend the contradictions, this micro-study
focused on the identification and analysis of the experiences of select Cordillera
overseas domestic worker-returnees from several Gulf countries. It attempted to
identify and measure beyond simple quantification the problems and conditions
of these select subjects. Exploring the dynamics on how gender and class
relation interact and affect the condition of woman as overseas workers, this
study re-examined the marginalization and their subordination. The
contemporary account of the select Cordillera women who worked in the
domestic wage structure in the Gulf was studied within the perspective of gender
and class relations, relations embedded in power and conflict of one’s group
dominance over another.
The main problem of the study was to unravel the contradictions present
in the overseas employment of Cordillera women in the Gulf by finding out the
forms and extent of their marginalization and subordination as domestic helpers
(DHs).
Hence, the study explored to answer the following specific problems
related to female overseas employment:
1. What are the social contexts that may identify and explain the supply-side
push and demand-pull factors underlying the overseas employment of
Cordillera women?
2. Given an understanding of these contexts, what are the forms and
dynamics of facilitative mechanisms linking the supply-demand side of the
overseas employment?
3. What is the nature of the gender division of labor in the Gulf domestic
wage structure as to:
1. the social character of work control and processes?
2. the forms and extent of exploitation and abuse experienced by the
worker>
4. What are the gender needs of the domestic helper (DH)-returnees?
5. What is the cultural-ideological basis of female labor in the Gulf?
The analysis in this study was undertaken within the theoretical context
composing various schools of thought and concepts such as: (1) Sex and
Political Economy; (2) Historical Materialism; (3) Gender Division of Labor; (4)
Socialist Feminism; and (5) Overseas Labor Migration.
A qualitative mode of inquiry on select case studies was undertaken for
descriptive and exploratory purpose. The study is a social science research
covering mainly the disciplines of Political Economy and Sociology using multiple
data collection strategies such as informal conversation interviews with the
interview guide as an approach; summary observations and field notes; and
content analysis of secondary sources which includes complaints or case files,
institutional documents on statistical compendium, policy statements,
memorandum circulars, laws and social legislations, accomplishment reports
from the government and non-government institutions, artifacts and archival
records.
The gathering of data was undertaken in three (3) phases for a period of
two (2) years. Data obtained from oral interviews and secondary sources were
examined through content analysis both within the gender perspectives.
The identity of the subjects including their case files are treated with
utmost confidentiality.
Major Findings
The following are major findings and fresh insights culled from the study:
1. The rural and urban poverty that marginalize Cordillera families increase
the desire of women to shift from reproductive (i.e. traditional roles) to
amore regular full-time productive employment. The perceived high wage
differential offered by the vulnerable and high-risk domestic wage
structure in the Gulf explains in general terms, the push-pull factors of
overseas employment of Cordillera women.
2. The employment standards set by the Philippine government could not
effectively provide safety and protection valves to the female DHs in the
Gulf. Employment facilitation and recruitment do not come within the
territory of the private recruitment agencies and the government only. The
neighborhood and kinship system in the locality facilitate information flows.
3. The domestic wage structure in the gulf is a case of multiple exploitation.
The contradicting notions of rational-legal and traditional sources of
authority characterize the gender division of labor making the DH
subordinated and exploited both as a worker and as a woman.
4. The worker and her family did not substantially benefit from overseas
employment. There is a social cost attendant to her employment.
5. The different set of socio-political-cultural orientation of the Cordillera
woman put her in an opposition consciousness with the more traditional-
theocratic consciousness of Gulf employers.
Conclusions
There are generalizations in the study that point to the crisis-ridden
character of female labor migration, to wit:
1. The structural imbalances of the Cordillera Region that marginalize the
agricultural, mining and urban communities explain the emigration pressures
pushing Cordillera to low-skilled and equally marginalized job categories in
the international labor market.
2. The equation on supply-demand of female overseas employment is
facilitated by a triadic institution: The government, the private sector through
the private recruitment agencies and the local community through the informal
information network therein.
The availability of employment standards on overseas domestic services
designed by the government including legally perfected employment contracts
cannot fully guarantee the protection and promotion of the general welfare of
the female worker in the Gulf work organization.
3. The domestic wage structure in the Gulf in relation to female labor is a
unique typology of class relations in the international labor market. There is a
multiplied exploitation wherein members of a wage-earning class exploit the
same wage earner in that class. Hence, the following are fresh insights: a) the
marginalization of the female worker is embedded within a contradictory
worker-employer relation belonging to the same working class in the Gulf
economic structure; b) the gross disparity between the volume of paid labor
and the unpaid labor is the qualitative form of exploitation that determines the
opposing character of the worker-employer relationship; c) the forms of the
worker’s exploitation and abuse are both reinforced by class relations
(material base) and gender relations (cultural-ideological superstructure; i.e.
patriarchal culture).
4. There are forms of exploitation and gender abuse experienced by the DHs
in the Gulf work environment and these have serious and immeasurable
consequences on the lives of the returnees and their families that call for
specific solutions and interventions.
5. The political-religious context of the Gulf host country more or less defines
the status and the condition of the female overseas worker. Its patriarchal
culture produces expression of the totality of social relation- be it gender or
class.
Recommendations
In the light of the findings and conclusions, several recommendations and
challenges were posed in the areas of education, academic research, and
mass communication. Policy and program inputs were also forwarded for
consideration by the international community and the private and non-
government sector and the Philippine government in the areas of executive-
administrative and legislative measures, to wit:
1. Government programs on pre-departure, on-site and post-departure
phases of overseas employment shall be gender-sensitive and responsive
with emphasis on empowering the female worker to confront her problematic
situations and effectively negotiate her needs as an overseas worker.
2. The academic community shall be more pro-active in coming up with more
relevant studies in the aspect of female labor migration and other gender
studies in the homefront and advocate for the utilization of these for policy
reviews and modifications.
3. Both the government and non-government sector shall be more aggressive
to pursue policy advocacy on overseas labor migration in the forms of
legislative tracking and lobbying, media advocacy, strengthening overseas
workers’ organizations and participation and policy research.
4. There is a need to review the overseas employment policy and program of
the government with focus on the promotion of labor standards affecting the
household job categories and responding to the needs of women overseas
workers through national laws and international or bilateral arrangements with
the labor-receiving countries.
5. Pre-deployment, on-site, and post-deployment measures to safeguard
overseas workers and extend assistance to their families shall be
underscored in the management of the overseas employment program both
at jobsite and upon return to the country.
6. Improve the capability and skill of foreign personnel and other government
personnel involved in overseas woman workers.
7. Development planners and implementers in the Region must attack the
core of the problem: to improve the contextualization of development
plans and programs with the object of correcting structural imbalance of
the local economy and underscoring the roles of Cordillera woman in the
development process.
(Unpublished master’s thesis). Baguio City: Baguio Colleges Foundation.
Physical location: University of the Cordilleras Library, Baguio City
ABSTRACT
The rising trend in female overseas employment raises concerns and calls
for a special attention because it continues to raise critical issues in evolving
policies and programs for the country’s participation in the international labor
economy. To asses the gains of overseas employment, it is equally important to
unearth and understand its contradictions particularly the crisis-ridden social
character of the employment of women in marginalized job categories.
As a starting ground to comprehend the contradictions, this micro-study
focused on the identification and analysis of the experiences of select Cordillera
overseas domestic worker-returnees from several Gulf countries. It attempted to
identify and measure beyond simple quantification the problems and conditions
of these select subjects. Exploring the dynamics on how gender and class
relation interact and affect the condition of woman as overseas workers, this
study re-examined the marginalization and their subordination. The
contemporary account of the select Cordillera women who worked in the
domestic wage structure in the Gulf was studied within the perspective of gender
and class relations, relations embedded in power and conflict of one’s group
dominance over another.
The main problem of the study was to unravel the contradictions present
in the overseas employment of Cordillera women in the Gulf by finding out the
forms and extent of their marginalization and subordination as domestic helpers
(DHs).
Hence, the study explored to answer the following specific problems
related to female overseas employment:
1. What are the social contexts that may identify and explain the supply-side
push and demand-pull factors underlying the overseas employment of
Cordillera women?
2. Given an understanding of these contexts, what are the forms and
dynamics of facilitative mechanisms linking the supply-demand side of the
overseas employment?
3. What is the nature of the gender division of labor in the Gulf domestic
wage structure as to:
1. the social character of work control and processes?
2. the forms and extent of exploitation and abuse experienced by the
worker>
4. What are the gender needs of the domestic helper (DH)-returnees?
5. What is the cultural-ideological basis of female labor in the Gulf?
The analysis in this study was undertaken within the theoretical context
composing various schools of thought and concepts such as: (1) Sex and
Political Economy; (2) Historical Materialism; (3) Gender Division of Labor; (4)
Socialist Feminism; and (5) Overseas Labor Migration.
A qualitative mode of inquiry on select case studies was undertaken for
descriptive and exploratory purpose. The study is a social science research
covering mainly the disciplines of Political Economy and Sociology using multiple
data collection strategies such as informal conversation interviews with the
interview guide as an approach; summary observations and field notes; and
content analysis of secondary sources which includes complaints or case files,
institutional documents on statistical compendium, policy statements,
memorandum circulars, laws and social legislations, accomplishment reports
from the government and non-government institutions, artifacts and archival
records.
The gathering of data was undertaken in three (3) phases for a period of
two (2) years. Data obtained from oral interviews and secondary sources were
examined through content analysis both within the gender perspectives.
The identity of the subjects including their case files are treated with
utmost confidentiality.
Major Findings
The following are major findings and fresh insights culled from the study:
1. The rural and urban poverty that marginalize Cordillera families increase
the desire of women to shift from reproductive (i.e. traditional roles) to
amore regular full-time productive employment. The perceived high wage
differential offered by the vulnerable and high-risk domestic wage
structure in the Gulf explains in general terms, the push-pull factors of
overseas employment of Cordillera women.
2. The employment standards set by the Philippine government could not
effectively provide safety and protection valves to the female DHs in the
Gulf. Employment facilitation and recruitment do not come within the
territory of the private recruitment agencies and the government only. The
neighborhood and kinship system in the locality facilitate information flows.
3. The domestic wage structure in the gulf is a case of multiple exploitation.
The contradicting notions of rational-legal and traditional sources of
authority characterize the gender division of labor making the DH
subordinated and exploited both as a worker and as a woman.
4. The worker and her family did not substantially benefit from overseas
employment. There is a social cost attendant to her employment.
5. The different set of socio-political-cultural orientation of the Cordillera
woman put her in an opposition consciousness with the more traditional-
theocratic consciousness of Gulf employers.
Conclusions
There are generalizations in the study that point to the crisis-ridden
character of female labor migration, to wit:
1. The structural imbalances of the Cordillera Region that marginalize the
agricultural, mining and urban communities explain the emigration pressures
pushing Cordillera to low-skilled and equally marginalized job categories in
the international labor market.
2. The equation on supply-demand of female overseas employment is
facilitated by a triadic institution: The government, the private sector through
the private recruitment agencies and the local community through the informal
information network therein.
The availability of employment standards on overseas domestic services
designed by the government including legally perfected employment contracts
cannot fully guarantee the protection and promotion of the general welfare of
the female worker in the Gulf work organization.
3. The domestic wage structure in the Gulf in relation to female labor is a
unique typology of class relations in the international labor market. There is a
multiplied exploitation wherein members of a wage-earning class exploit the
same wage earner in that class. Hence, the following are fresh insights: a) the
marginalization of the female worker is embedded within a contradictory
worker-employer relation belonging to the same working class in the Gulf
economic structure; b) the gross disparity between the volume of paid labor
and the unpaid labor is the qualitative form of exploitation that determines the
opposing character of the worker-employer relationship; c) the forms of the
worker’s exploitation and abuse are both reinforced by class relations
(material base) and gender relations (cultural-ideological superstructure; i.e.
patriarchal culture).
4. There are forms of exploitation and gender abuse experienced by the DHs
in the Gulf work environment and these have serious and immeasurable
consequences on the lives of the returnees and their families that call for
specific solutions and interventions.
5. The political-religious context of the Gulf host country more or less defines
the status and the condition of the female overseas worker. Its patriarchal
culture produces expression of the totality of social relation- be it gender or
class.
Recommendations
In the light of the findings and conclusions, several recommendations and
challenges were posed in the areas of education, academic research, and
mass communication. Policy and program inputs were also forwarded for
consideration by the international community and the private and non-
government sector and the Philippine government in the areas of executive-
administrative and legislative measures, to wit:
1. Government programs on pre-departure, on-site and post-departure
phases of overseas employment shall be gender-sensitive and responsive
with emphasis on empowering the female worker to confront her problematic
situations and effectively negotiate her needs as an overseas worker.
2. The academic community shall be more pro-active in coming up with more
relevant studies in the aspect of female labor migration and other gender
studies in the homefront and advocate for the utilization of these for policy
reviews and modifications.
3. Both the government and non-government sector shall be more aggressive
to pursue policy advocacy on overseas labor migration in the forms of
legislative tracking and lobbying, media advocacy, strengthening overseas
workers’ organizations and participation and policy research.
4. There is a need to review the overseas employment policy and program of
the government with focus on the promotion of labor standards affecting the
household job categories and responding to the needs of women overseas
workers through national laws and international or bilateral arrangements with
the labor-receiving countries.
5. Pre-deployment, on-site, and post-deployment measures to safeguard
overseas workers and extend assistance to their families shall be
underscored in the management of the overseas employment program both
at jobsite and upon return to the country.
6. Improve the capability and skill of foreign personnel and other government
personnel involved in overseas woman workers.
7. Development planners and implementers in the Region must attack the
core of the problem: to improve the contextualization of development
plans and programs with the object of correcting structural imbalance of
the local economy and underscoring the roles of Cordillera woman in the
development process.